Survey of Ophthalmology
Volume 48, Issue 1 , Pages 58-72 , January 2003

Complex Visual Hallucinations in the Visually Impaired: The Charles Bonnet Syndrome

  • G.Jayakrishna Menon, FRCS, FRCOphth

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationReprint address: G.J. Menon, Specialist Registrar, Royal Eye Infirmary, Apsley Road, Plymouth, PL4 6 PL, United Kingdom
    • Royal Eye Infirmary, Plymouth, United Kingdom
  • ,
  • Imran Rahman, MBBS

      Affiliations

    • Royal Eye Infirmary, Plymouth, United Kingdom
  • ,
  • Sharmila J Menon, MBBS, MBA

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychiatry, Mount Gould Hospital, Plymouth, United Kingdom
  • ,
  • Gordon N Dutton, MD, FRCOphth

      Affiliations

    • Tennent Institute of Ophthalmology, Gartnavel General Hospital, Glasgow, United Kingdom

References 

  1. Adachi N. Charles Bonnet syndrome in leprosy; prevalence and clinical characteristics. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1996;93:279–281
  2. Adachi N, Watanabe T, Matsuda H, Onuma T. Hyperperfusion in the lateral temporal cortex, the striatum and the thalamus during complex visual hallucinations (single photon emission computed tomography findings in patients with Charles Bonnet syndrome). Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000;54:157–162
  3. Adair DK, Keshavan MS. The Charles Bonnet syndrome and grief reaction. Am J Psychiatry. 1988;145:895–896
  4. Alroe CJ, McIntyre JN. Visual hallucinations. The Charles Bonnet syndrome and bereavement. Med J Aust. 1983;2:674–675
  5. American Psychiatry Association Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington DC, American Psychiatry Association, 1994, ed 4, p 767
  6. Anderson SW, Rizzo M. Hallucinations following occipital lobe damage (the pathological activation of visual representations). J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1994;16:651–663
  7. Arya DK. Charles Bonnet syndrome. Br J Psychiatry. 1995;167:114–115
  8. Asaad G, Shapiro B. Hallucinations (theoretical and clinical overview). Am J Psychiatry. 1986;143:1088–1097
  9. Au Eong KG, Fujii GY, Ng EW, et al.  Transient formed visual hallucinations following macular translocation for subfoveal choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131:664–666
  10. Ball C. Charles Bonnet syndrome. Br J Psychiatry. 1995;166:677–678
  11. Barodawala S, Mulley GP. Visual hallucinations. J R Coll Physicians Lond. 1997;31:42–48
  12. Bartlett JEA. A case of organised visual hallucinations in an old man with cataract, and their relationship to the phenomena of the phantom limb. Brain. 1951;74:363–373
  13. Batra A, Bartels M, Wormstall H. Therapeutic options in Charles Bonnet syndrome. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1997;96:129–133
  14. Bentall RP. The illusion of reality (a review and integration of psychological research on hallucinations). Psychol Bull. 1990;107:82–95
  15. Berrios GE, Brook P. Visual hallucinations and sensory delusions in the elderly. Br J Psychiatry. 1984;144:662–664
  16. Berrios GE, Brook P. The Charles Bonnet syndrome and the problem of visual perceptual disorders in the elderly. Age Ageing. 1982;11:17–23
  17. Bhatia MS, Khastgir U, Malik SC. Charles Bonnet syndrome. Br J Psychiatry. 1992;161:409–410
  18. Bonnet C: Essai analytique sur les facultes de l'ame. Copenhagen and Geneva, Philibert, 1769, ed 2, pp 176–8
  19. Borruat FX: [Visual hallucinations and illusions, symptoms frequently misdiagnosed by the practitioner]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 214:324–7, 1999
  20. Brasic JR. Hallucinations. Percept Mot Skills. 1998;86:851–877
  21. Brown GC, Murphy RP. Visual symptoms associated with choroidal neovascularization. Photopsias and the Charles Bonnet syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110:1251–1256
  22. Chapman FM, Dickinson J, McKeith I, Ballard C. Association among visual hallucinations, visual acuity, and specific eye pathologies in Alzheimers disease (treatment implications). Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:1983–1985
  23. Chatterjee A, Southwood MH. Cortical blindness and visual imagery. Neurology. 1995;45:2189–2195
  24. Chaudhuri A. Charles Bonnet syndrome (an example of cortical dissociation syndrome affecting vision). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:704–705
  25. Chen CS, Lin SF, Chong MY. Charles Bonnet syndrome and multiple sclerosis. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:1158–1159
  26. Chen J, Gomez M, Veit S, O'Dowd MA. Visual hallucinations in a blind elderly woman (Charles Bonnet syndrome, an underrecognized clinical condition). Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1996;18:453–455
  27. Cogan DG. Visual hallucinations as release phenomena. Albrecht Von Graefes Arch Klin Exp Ophthalmol. 1973;188:139–150
  28. Cohn R. Phantom vision. Arch Neurol. 1971;25:468–471
  29. Cole M. Charles Bonnet Syndrome an example of cortical dissociation syndrome affecting vision?. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;71:134
  30. Cole MG. Charles Bonnet hallucinations (a case series). Can J Psychiatry. 1992;37:267–270
  31. Damas-Mora J, Skelton-Robinson M, Jenner FA. The Charles Bonnet syndrome in perspective. Psychol Med. 1982;12:251–261
  32. de Morsier G. Le Syndrome de Charles Bonnet (hallucinations visuelles des viellards sans deficience mentale). Ann Med Psychol. 1967;125:677–702
  33. de Morsier G. Les Hallucinations. Rev Otoneuroophtalmol. 1938;16:244–352
  34. de Morsier G. Les automatismes visuels. Hallucinations rétrochiasmatiques. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 1936;66:700–708
  35. Diederich NJ, Pieri V, Goetz CG: [Visual hallucinations in Parkinson and Charles Bonnet Syndrome patients. A phenomenological and pathogenetic comparison]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 68:129–36, 2000
  36. Dlugon U: [Charles Bonnet syndrome]. Psychiatr Pol 34:307–16, 2000
  37. Dodd J, Heffeman A, Blake J. Visual hallucinations associated with Charles Bonnet Syndrome—an ever increasing diagnosis. Ir Med J. 1999;92:344–345
  38. Duke-Elder S, Scott GI. Disorders of perception (visual hallucinations). In:  Duke-Elder S editors. System of Ophthalmology, Vol. XII. London: Henry Kimpton; 1971;p. 562–569
  39. Evarts EV. A neurophysiologic theory of hallucinations. In:  West LJ editors. Hallucinations. New York: Grune and Stratton; 1962;p. 1–14
  40. Fenelon G, Marie S, Ferroir JP, Guillard A. Hallucinose musicale (7 cas). Rev Neurol (Paris). 1993;149:462–467
  41. Fernandes LH, Scassellati-Sforzolini B, Spaide RF. Estrogen and visual hallucinations in a patient with Charles Bonnet syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129:407
  42. Fernandez A, Lichtshein G, Vieweg WV. The Charles Bonnet syndrome (a review). J Nerv Ment Dis. 1997;185:195–200
  43. Ffytche DH, Howard RJ, Brammer MJ, et al.  The anatomy of conscious vision (an fMRI study of visual hallucinations). Nat Neurosci. 1998;1:738–742
  44. Fitzgerald RG. Visual phenomenology in recently blind adults. Am J Psychiatry. 1971;127:1533–1539
  45. Fitzgerald RG, Ebert JN, Chambers M. Reactions to blindness (a four-year follow-up study). Percept Mot Skills. 1987;64:363–378
  46. Fluornoy T. Le case de Charles Bonnet. Arch Psychol Suisse Romande. 1902;1:1–23
  47. Foerster O. The cerebral cortex in man. Lancet. 1931;2:309–312
  48. Fong SY, Wing YK. Charles Bonnet syndrome with major depression in a Chinese middle-aged man. Aust NZ J Psychiatry. 1997;31:769–771
  49. Fuchs T, Lauter H. Charles Bonnet Syndrome and musical hallucinations in the elderly. In:  Katona C,  Levy R editor. Delusions and hallucinations in old age. Royal College of Psychiatrists: Gaskell; 1992;p. 187–198
  50. Galynker I, Kampf R, Rosenthal R. Dose related visual hallucinations in macular degeneration patients receiving phenelzine. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:450
  51. Gelder M, Gath D, Mayou R: Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry. Oxford. Oxford University Press 1991, ed 2, pp 5–8
  52. Girkin CA, Miller NR. Central disorders of vision in humans. Surv Ophthalmol. 2001;45:379–405
  53. Gold K, Rabins PV. Isolated visual hallucinations and the Charles Bonnet syndrome (a review of the literature and presentation of six cases). Compr Psychiatry. 1989;30:90–98
  54. Goldberg KB, Goldberg RE. Is seeing believing? Visual hallucinations in age-related macular degeneration and Charles Bonnet. J Ophthalmic Nurs Technol. 2000;19:39–42
  55. Gorgens K, Liedtke M: [Charles Bonnet syndrome]. Psychiatr Prax 25:85–6, 1998
  56. Gray M, Jones IR. Type II diabetes mellitus presenting as the Charles Bonnet syndrome. J R Soc Med. 1997;90:503
  57. Griffiths TD. Musical hallucinosis in acquired deafness. Phenomenology and brain substrate. Brain. 2000;123:2065–2076
  58. Guerra-Garcia H. Charles Bonnet syndrome and early dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1997;45:893–894
  59. Hart CT. Formed visual hallucinations (a symptom of cranial arteritis). Br Med J. 1967;3:643–644
  60. Hart J. Phantom visions (real enough to touch). Elder Care. 1997;9:30–32
  61. Hartmann E. Dreams and other hallucinations (an approach to the underlying mechanism). In:  Siegal RK,  West LJ editor. Hallucinations (Behaviour, Experience and Theory). New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1975;p. 71–79
  62. Hartmann PM, Kosko DA, Cohn JA. The Charles Bonnet syndrome (pseudohallucinations) in an AIDS patient with cytomegalovirus retinitis. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1995;183:549–550
  63. Hauge T. Catheter vertebral angiography. Acta Radiol. 1954;109(Suppl):1–219
  64. Hécaen H, Albert ML. Disorders of visual perception. In:  Hécaen H,  Albert ML editor. Human Neuropsychology. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1978;p. 144–167
  65. Hécaen H, Badarocco JG. Les hallucinations visuelles au cours des ophthalmopathies et des lesions des nerfds et du chiasma optiques. Evol Psychiatr (Paris). 1956;21:157–179
  66. Heron W, Doane BK, Scott TH. Visual disturbances after prolonged perceptual isolation. Can J Psychol. 1956;10:13–18
  67. Holroyd S. Visual hallucinations in a geriatric psychiatry clinic (prevalence and associated diagnoses). J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1996;9:171–175
  68. Holroyd S, Currie L, Wooten GF. Prospective study of hallucinations and delusions in Parkinsons disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70:734–738
  69. Holroyd S, Rabins PV. A three-year follow-up study of visual hallucinations in patients with macular degeneration. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1996;184:188–189
  70. Holroyd S, Rabins PV, Finkelstein D, et al.  Visual hallucinations in patients with macular degeneration. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149:1701–1706
  71. Holroyd S, Rabins PV, Finkelstein D, Lavrisha M. Visual hallucinations in patients from an ophthalmology clinic and medical clinic population. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182:273–276
  72. Holroyd S, Sheldon-Keller A. A study of visual hallucinations in Alzheimers disease. Am J Geriatr Psych. 1995;3:198–205
  73. Holroyd S, Shepherd ML. Alzheimers disease (a review for the ophthalmologist). Surv Ophthalmol. 2001;45:516–524
  74. Hori H, Terao T, Nakamura J. Charles Bonnet syndrome with auditory hallucinations (a diagnostic dilemma). Psychopathology. 2001;34:164–166
  75. Hori H, Terao T, Shiraishi Y, Nakamura J. Treatment of Charles Bonnet syndrome with valproate. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2000;15:117–119
  76. Horowitz MJ. The imagery of visual hallucinations. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1964;138:513–523
  77. Hosty G. Charles Bonnet syndrome (a description of two cases). Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1990;82:316–317
  78. Howard R, Meehan O, Powell R, Mellers J. Successful treatment of Charles Bonnet Syndrome type visual hallucinosis with low-dose Risperidone. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1994;9:677–678
  79. Howard R, Williams S, Bullmore E. Cortical response to exogenous visual stimulation during visual hallucinations. Lancet. 1995;345:70
  80. Johnson FC, Smith LD. Cognition. In:  Thompson T,  Mathias P editor. Lyttle's mental health and disorder. London: Bailliere Tindall; 1994;p. 175–240
  81. Kahn HA, Leibowitz HM, Ganley JP, et al.  The Framingham Eye Study. I. Outline and major prevalence findings. Am J Epidemiol. 1977;106:17–32
  82. Kolmel HW. Complex visual hallucinations in the hemianopic field. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1985;48:29–38
  83. Kolmel HW. Visual illusions and hallucinations. In:  Kennard C editors. Baillieres Clinical Neurology, Vol.2, No. 2. London: Bailliere Tindall; 1993;p. 243–264
  84. Kornreich C, Dan B, Verbanck P, Pelc I. Treating Charles Bonnet syndrome (understanding inconsistency). J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2000;20:396
  85. Kurata A, Miyasaka Y, Yoshida T, et al.  Venous ischemia caused by dural arteriovenous malformation. Case report. J Neurosurg. 1994;80:552–555
  86. Lalla D, Primeau F. Complex visual hallucinations in macular degeneration. Can J Psychiatry. 1993;38:584–586
  87. Lance JW. Simple formed hallucinations confined to the area of a specific visual field defect. Brain. 1976;99:719–734
  88. Lauber HL, Lewin B. A clinical and psychological study of optic hallucinations in the elimination of vision. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr. 1958;197:15–31
  89. Lepore FE. Spontaneous visual phenomena with visual loss (104 patients with lesions of retinal and neural afferent pathways). Neurology. 1990;40:444–447
  90. Levêque de Pouilly JS: Eloge de Charles Bonnet, Lausanne, Henbach, 1794, pp 120–121
  91. Levine AM. Visual hallucinations and cataracts. Ophthalmic Surg. 1980;11:95–98
  92. Linn L, Kahn RL, Coles R. Patterns of behaviour disturbance following cataract extraction. Am J Psychiatry. 1953;110:281–289
  93. Loewenstein JI. Visual hallucinations in patients with choroidal neovascularization. JAMA. 1994;272:243
  94. Manford M, Andermann F. Complex visual hallucinations. Clinical and neurobiological insights. Brain. 1998;121:1819–1840
  95. Maricle RA, Turner LD, Lehman KD. The Charles Bonnet syndrome (a brief review and case report). Psychiatr Serv. 1995;46:289–291
  96. McNamara ME, Heros RC, Boller F. Visual hallucinations in blindness (the Charles Bonnet syndrome). Int J Neurosci. 1982;17:13–15
  97. Melzack R. Phantom limbs and the concept of a neuromatrix. Trends Neurosci. 1990;13:88–92
  98. Melzack R. Phantom limbs, the self and the brain. (the D.O. Hebb Memorial Lecture). Can Psychol. 1989;30:1–16
  99. Mojica TR, Bailey PP. Hallucinations in the vision-impaired elderly (the Charles Bonnet syndrome). Nurse Pract. 2000;25:74–76
  100. Murphy RP, Storer D, Bressler NM, Orr P. Visual hallucinations in patients with age related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1990;31(Suppl):48; [abstract]
  101. Nadarajah J. Visual hallucinations and macular degeneration (an example of the Charles Bonnet syndrome). Aust NZ J Ophthalmol. 1998;26:63–65
  102. National Advisory Eye Council: Vision Research, a National Plan, 1994–1998. Bethesda, MD: US Dept of Health and Human Services, NIH publication, 1993, pp 93–3186
  103. Naville E. Hallucinations visuelles a letat normal. Arch Psychologie. 1908;8:1–8
  104. Needham W, Taylor RE. Benign visual hallucinations, or phantom vision in visually impaired and blind persons. J Vis Impair Blind. 1992;86:245–248
  105. Needham WE, Taylor RE. Atypical Charles Bonnet hallucinations (an elf in the woodshed, a spirit of evil, and the cowboy malefactors). J Nerv Ment Dis. 2000;188:108–115
  106. Nevins M. Charles Bonnet syndrome. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1997;45:894–895
  107. Norton-Willson L, Munir M. Visual perceptual disorders resembling the Charles Bonnet syndrome. A study of. 1987;434(consecutive patients referred to a psychogeriatric unit. Fam Pract 4):27–35
  108. O'Reilly R, Chamberlaine C. Charles Bonnet syndrome (incidence and demographic and clinical features). Can J Psychiatry. 1996;41:259–260
  109. Olbrich HM, Engelmeier MP, Pauleikhoff D, Waubke T. Visual hallucinations in ophthalmology. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1987;225:217–220
  110. Ormond AW: Visual hallucinations in sane people. BMJ 367–7, 1925
  111. Özsancak C, Auzou P. Palinopsie au cours d'un syndrome de Charles Bonnet. Presse Med. 1998;27:359
  112. Paulig M, Mentrup H. Charles Bonnets syndrome (complete remission of complex visual hallucinations treated by gabapentin). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70:813–814
  113. Pfeiffer RF, Bodis-Wollner I. Charles Bonnet syndrome. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44:1128–1129
  114. Pliskin NH, Kiolbasa TA, Towle VL, et al.  Charles Bonnet syndrome (an early marker for dementia?). J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44:1055–1061
  115. Pliskin NH, Towle VL, Kiolbasa TA: In reply to Teunisse RJ: The Charles Bonnet Syndrome, insight and cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc 45; 892, 1997
  116. Podoll K, Osterheider M, Noth J: [The Charles Bonnet syndrome]. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 57:43–60, 1989
  117. Price J, Whitlock FA, Hall RT. The psychiatry of vertebro-basilar insufficiency with the report of a case. Psychiatr Clin (Basel). 1983;16:26–44
  118. Ranen NG, Pasternak RE, Rovner BW. Cisapride in the treatment of visual hallucinations caused by vision loss (the Charles Bonnet syndrome). Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1999;7:264–266
  119. Rao V. Charles Bonnet syndrome, time to drop the name?. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1997;12:413
  120. Raudino F. Visual evoked potentials (VEP) in the Charles Bonnet Syndrome (Report of a case). Acta Neurol (Napoli). 1987;9:53–55
  121. Reyes-Ortiz CA, Camacho ME, Mulligan T. Charles Bonnet syndrome in a centenarian. JAMA. 1996;276:451–452
  122. Rosenbaum F, Harati Y, Rolak L, Freedman M. Visual hallucinations in sane people (Charles Bonnet syndrome). J Am Geriatr Soc. 1987;35:66–68
  123. Rousseaux M, Debrock D, Cabaret M, Steinling M. Visual hallucinations with written words in a case of left parietotemporal lesion. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994;57:1268–1271
  124. Safran AB, Kline LB, Glaser JS. Positive visual phenomena in optic nerve and chiasm disease (photopsias and photophobia). In:  Glaser JS editors. Neuro-ophthalmology, Vol. 10. St Louis: CV Mosby; 1980;p. 225–231
  125. Santhouse AM, Howard RJ, Ffytche DH. Visual hallucinatory syndromes and the anatomy of the visual brain. Brain. 2000;123:2055–2064
  126. Scheibel ME, Scheibel AB. Hallucinations and brain stem reticular core. In:  West LJ editors. Hallucinations. New York: Grune and Stratton; 1962;p. 15–35
  127. Schultz G, Melzack R. Visual hallucinations and mental state. A study of. 1993;14(Charles Bonnet syndrome hallucinators. J Nerv Ment Dis 181):639–643
  128. Schultz G, Melzack R. The Charles Bonnet syndrome (phantom visual images). Perception. 1991;20:809–825
  129. Schultz G, Needham W, Taylor R, et al.  Properties of complex hallucinations associated with deficits in vision. Perception. 1996;25:715–726
  130. Schwartz TL, Vahgei L. Charles Bonnet syndrome in children. J AAPOS. 1998;2:310–313
  131. Sedman G. A comparative study of pseudohallucinations, imagery, and true hallucinations. Br J Psychiatry. 1966;112:9–17
  132. Siatkowski RM, Zimmer B, Rosenberg PR. The Charles Bonnet syndrome. Visual perceptive dysfunction in sensory deprivation. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1990;10:215–218
  133. Sichart U, Fuchs T: [Visual hallucinations in elderly patients with reduced vision: Charles Bonnet syndrome]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 200:224–7, 1992
  134. Sims A, Mundt C, Berner P, Barocka A. Descriptive phenomenology. In:  Gelder MG,  Lopez-Ibor JJ,  Andreasen NC editor. New Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry. Oxford: Oxford Medical Publications; 2000;p. 55–70
  135. Symonds C, MacKenzie I. Bilateral loss of vision from cerebral infarction. Brain. 1957;80:415–455
  136. Takata K, Inoue Y, Hazama H, Fukuma E. Night-time hypnopompic visual hallucinations related to REM sleep disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1998;52:207–209
  137. Taylor FK. On pseudo-hallucinations. Psychol Med. 1981;11:265–271
  138. Taylor J, Holmes G, Walshe FMR. Evolution and dissolution of the nervous system. In:  Taylor J,  Holmes G,  Walshe FMR editor. Selected writings of John Hughlings Jackson, Vol. 2. London: Hodder and Stoughton; 1932;p. 3–120
  139. Taylor RE, Mancil GL, Kramer SH. Visual hallucinations (meaning and management). J Am Optom Assoc. 1986;57:889–892
  140. Terao T. Hallucinations in Alzheimers disease and Charles Bonnet syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:2062
  141. Terao T. Effect of carbamazepine and clonazepam combination on Charles Bonnet syndrome (a case report). Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp. 1998;13:451–453
  142. Terao T, Collinson S. Charles Bonnet Syndrome and dementia. Lancet. 2000;355:2168
  143. Teunisse RJ. Charles Bonnet syndrome, insight and cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1997;45:892–893
  144. Teunisse RJ, Cruysberg JR, Hoefnagels WH, et al.  Social and psychological characteristics of elderly visually handicapped patients with the Charles Bonnet Syndrome. Compr Psychiatry. 1999;40:315–319
  145. Teunisse RJ, Cruysberg JR, Hoefnagels WH, et al.  Risk indicators for the Charles Bonnet syndrome. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998;186:190–192
  146. Teunisse RJ, Cruysberg JR, Verbeek A, Zitman FG. The Charles Bonnet syndrome (a large prospective study in The Netherlands. A study of the prevalence of the Charles Bonnet syndrome and associated factors in 500 patients attending the University Department of Ophthalmology at Nijmegen). Br J Psychiatry. 1995;166:254–257
  147. Teunisse RJ, Cruysberg JR, Hoefnagels WH, et al.  Visual hallucinations in psychologically normal people (Charles Bonnets syndrome). Lancet. 1996;347:794–797
  148. Teunisse RJ, Zitman FG, Raes DC. Clinical evaluation of 14 patients with the Charles Bonnet syndrome (isolated visual hallucinations). Compr Psychiatry. 1994;35:70–75
  149. Thorpe L. Treatment of psychiatric disorders in Late life. Can J Psychiatry. 1997;42(Suppl 1):19S–27S
  150. Tueth MJ, Cheong JA, Samander J. The Charles Bonnet syndrome (a type of organic visual hallucinosis). J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1995;8:1–3
  151. Vaphiades MS, Celesia GG, Brigell MG. Positive spontaneous visual phenomena limited to the hemianopic field in lesions of central visual pathways. Neurology. 1996;47:408–417
  152. Weinberger LM, Grant FC. Visual hallucinations and their neuro-optical correlates. Arch Ophthalmol. 1940;23:166–199
  153. West LJ. A general theory of hallucinations and dreams. In:  West LJ editors. Hallucinations. New York: Grune and Stratton; 1962;p. 275–291
  154. West LJ. A clinical and theoretical overview of hallucinatory phenomena. In:  Siegal RK,  West LJ editor. Hallucinations (Behaviour, Experience and Theory). New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1975;p. 287–311
  155. White CP, Jan JE. Visual hallucinations after acute visual loss in a young child. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1992;34:259–261
  156. White NJ. Complex visual hallucinations in partial blindness due to eye disease. Br J Psychiatry. 1980;136:284–286
  157. Williams RA, Brody BL, Thomas RG, et al.  The psychosocial impact of macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:514–520
  158. Ziskind E, Jones H, Filante W, Goldberg J. Observations on mental symptoms in eye patched patients (hypnagogic symptoms in sensory deprivation). Am J Psychiatry. 1960;116:893–900
  159. Zuckerman M, Cohen N. Sources of reports of visual and auditory sensations in perceptual isolation experiments. Psychol Bull. 1964;62:1–20

PII: S0039-6257(02)00414-9

Survey of Ophthalmology
Volume 48, Issue 1 , Pages 58-72 , January 2003