Survey of Ophthalmology
Volume 49, Issue 2 , Pages 131-157 , March 2004

Posterior segment manifestations of HIV/AIDS

  • Tamara R Vrabec, MD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationReprint address: Tamara R. Vrabec, MD, 3244 Midvale Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA.

References 

  1. Accorinti M, Ciapparoni V, Pirraglia MP, Pivetti-Pezzi P. Treatment of severe ocular hypotony in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis and cidofovir-associated uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2001;9:211–217
  2. Akpek EK, Kent C, Jakobiec F, et al.  Bilateral acute retinal necrosis caused by cytomegalovirus in an immunocompromised patient. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127:93–95
  3. Althaus C, Loeffler KU, Schimkat M, et al.  Prophylactic argon laser coagulation for rhegmatogenous retinal detachment in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1998;236:359–364
  4. Ambati J, Wynne KB, Angerame MC, Robinson MR. Anterior uveitis associated with intravenous cidofovir use in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1999;83:1153–1158
  5. Antworth MV, Beck RW. Third nerve palsy as a presenting sign of acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J Clin Neurol. 1987;7:125–128
  6. Arevalo JF, Gonzalez C, Capparelli EV, et al.  Intravitreous and plasma concentrations of ganciclovir and foscarnet after intravenous therapy in patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:951–956
  7. Aweeka F, Gambertoglio J, Mills J, Jacobson MA. Pharmacokinetics of intermittently administered intravenous foscarnet in the treatment of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients with serious cytomegalovirus retinitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1989;33:742–745
  8. Bainbridge JW, Raina J, Shah SM, et al.  Ocular complications of intravenous cidofovir for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Eye. 1999;13:353–356
  9. Baldanti F, Paolucci S, Parisi A, et al.  Emergence of multiple drug-resistant human cytomegalovirus variants in 2 patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection unresponsive to highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:1146–1149
  10. Baldassano VF, Dunn JP, Feinberg J, et al.  Cytomegalovirus retinitis and low CD 4+ T-lymphocyte counts. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:670
  11. Batisse D, Eliaszewicz M, Zazoun L, et al.  Acute retinal necrosis in the course of AIDS: study of 26 cases. AIDS. 1996;10:55–60
  12. Becerra LI, Ksiazek SM, Savino PJ, et al.  Syphilitic uveitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected and non-infected patients. Ophthalmology. 1989;96:1727–1730
  13. Belfort R, Muccioli C. Experience of HIV/AIDS and the eye in Brazil, South America. Community Eye Health. 1995;8:26–27
  14. Berger BB, Egwuagu CE, Freeman WR, Wiley CA. Miliary toxoplasmic retinitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111:373–376
  15. Berry CD, Hooton TM, Collier AC, Lukehart SA. Neurologic relapse after benzathine PCN therapy for secondary syphilis in a patient with HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:1587–1589
  16. Biswas J, Choudhry S, Kumar AA, Solomon S. Immune recovery vitritis presenting as panuveitis following therapy with protease inhibitors. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2000;48:313–315
  17. Biswas J, Deka S, Padmaja S, et al.  Central retinal vein occlusion due to herpes zoster as the initial presenting sign in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2001;9:125–130
  18. Biswas J, Kumar AA, George AE, et al.  Ocular and systemic lesions in children with HIV. Indian J Pediatr. 2000;67:721–724
  19. Biswas J, Madhavan HN, George AE, et al.  Ocular lesions associated with HIV infection in India: a series of 100 consecutive patients evaluated at a referral center. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129:9–15
  20. Blackie JD, Danta G, Sorrell T, Collignon P. Ophthalmological complications of cryptococcal meningitis. Clin Exp Neurol. 1985;21:263–270
  21. Bollinger RC, Tripathy SP, Quinn TC. The human immunodeficiency virus epidemic in India. Medicine. 1995;75:97–106
  22. Brosgart CL, Louis TA, Hillman DW, et al.  Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the safety and efficacy of oral ganciclovir for prophylaxis of cytomegalovirus disease in HIV-infected individuals. AIDS. 1998;12:269–277
  23. Browning DJ. Posterior segment manifestations of active ocular syphilis, their response to a neurosyphilis regimen of penicillin therapy, and the influence of human immunodeficiency virus status on response. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:2015–2023
  24. Cano-Parra JL, Diaz-LLopis ML, Cordoba JL, et al.  Acute iridocyclitis in a patient with AIDS diagnosed as toxoplasmosis by PCR. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2000;8:127–130
  25. Canzano JC, Morse LS, Wendel RT. Surgical repair of cytomegalovirus-related retinal detachment without silicone oil in patients with AIDS. Retina. 1999;19:274–280
  26. Canzano JC, Reed JB, Morse LS. Vitreomacular traction syndrome following highly active antiretroviral therapy in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Retina. 1998;18:443–447
  27. Carney MD, Combs JL, Waschler W. Cryptococcal choroiditis. Retina. 1990;10:27–32
  28. Cassoux N, Bodaghi B, Fillet AM, et al.  Relapses of CMV retinitis after 2 years of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84:1203
  29. Cassoux N, Bodaghi B, Lautier-Frau M, et al.  Current status of retinal detachment in AIDS patients. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2000;23:1031–1034
  30. Chakroun M, Meyohas MC, Pelosse B, et al.  [Ocular toxoplasmosis in AIDS]. Ann Med Interne. 1990;141:472–474
  31. Charles NC, Bokrud CA, Small EA. Cryptococcus of the anterior chamber in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:813–816
  32. Chou S, Marousek G, Guentzel S, et al.  Evolution of mutations conferring multidrug resistance during prophylaxis and therapy for cytomegalovirus disease. J Infect Dis. 1997;176:786–789
  33. Chou S, Miner RC, Drew WL. A deletion mutation in region V of the cytomegalovirus DNA polymerase sequence confers multidrug resistance. J Infect Dis. 2000;182:1765–1768
  34. Ciulla TA, Rutledge BK, Morley MG, Duker JS. The progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome: successful treatment with combination antiviral therapy. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1998;29:198–206
  35. Coccia L, Calista D, Boschini A. Eyelid nodule: a sentinel lesion of disseminated cryptococcosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999;117:271–272
  36. Cochereau I, Doan S, Diraison MC, et al.  Uveitis in patients treated with intravenous cidofovir. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1999;7:223–229
  37. Cochereau-Massin I, Lehoang P, Lautier-Frau M, et al.  Efficacy and tolerance of intravitreal ganciclovir in cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:1348–1355
  38. Cohen DB, Glasgow BJ. Bilateral optic nerve cryptococcosis in sudden blindness in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1993;100:1689–1694
  39. Conway MD, Tong P, Olk RJ. Branch retinal artery occlusion (BRAO) combined with branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO) and optic disc neovascularization associated with HIV and CMV retinitis. Int Ophthalmol. 1995;19:249–252
  40. Cunningham ET, Levinson RD, Jampol LM, et al.  Ischemic maculopathy in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132:727–733
  41. Cunningham ET, Short GA, Irvine AR, et al.  Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-associated herpes simplex virus retinitis. Clinical description and use of a polymerase chain reaction-based assay as a diagnostic tool. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:834–840
  42. Curi AL, Muralha A, Muralha L, Pavesio C. Suspension of anticytomegalovirus maintenance therapy following immune recovery due to highly active antiretroviral therapy. Br J Ophthalmol. 2001;85:471–473
  43. Curran M, Noble S. Valganciclovir. Drugs. 2001;61:1145–1150
  44. Currie J, Benson E, Ramsden B, et al.  Eye movement abnormalities as a predictor of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome dementia complex. Arch Neurol. 1988;45:949–953
  45. Davis JL. Management of CMV retinal detachments in the new era of antiretroviral therapy. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1999;7:205–213
  46. Davis JL, Hummer J, Feuer W. Laser photocoagulation for retinal detachments and retinal tears in cytomegalovirus retinitis. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:2053–2061
  47. Davis JL, Serfass MS, Lai MY, et al.  Silicone oil in repair of retinal detachments caused by necrotizing retinitis in HIV infection. Arch Ophthlamol. 1995;113:1401–1409
  48. Davis JL, Tabandeh H, Feuer WJ, et al.  Effect of potent antiretroviral therapy on recurrent cytomegalovirus retinitis treated with the ganciclovir implant. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127:283–287
  49. DeCock KM, Lucas S, Coulibaly D, et al.  Expansion of surveillance case definition for AIDS in resource-poor countries. Lancet. 1993;342:437–438
  50. DeCock KM, Lucas SB, Lucas S, et al.  Clincial research prophylaxsis, therapy and care for HIV disease in Africa. Am H Public Health. 1993;83:1385–1389
  51. De La Blanchardiere A, Rozenberg F, Caumes E, et al.  Neurological complications of varicella-zoster virus infection in adults with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Scand J Infect Dis. 2000;32:263–269
  52. DeMario MD, Liebowitz DN. Lymphomas in the immunocompromised patient. Semin Oncol. 1998;25:492–502
  53. Detrick B, Nagineni CN, Grillone LR, et al.  Inhibition of human cytomegalovirus replication in a human retinal epithelial cell model by antisense oligonucleotides. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:163–169
  54. Di Perri G, Vento S, Mazzi R, et al.  Recovery of long-term natural protection against reactivation of CMV retinitis in AIDS patients responding to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect. 1999;39:193–197
  55. DiLoreto DA, Rao NA. Solitary nonreactive choroidal tuberculoma in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131:138–140
  56. Dore GJ, Li Y, McDonald A, et al.  Impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy on individual AIDS-defining illness incidence and survival in Australia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:388–395
  57. Drew WL, Stempien MJ, Andrews J, et al.  Cytomegalovirus (CMV) resistance in patients with CMV retinitis and AIDS treated with oral or intravenous ganciclovir. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:1352–1355
  58. Dubreuil-Lemaire ML, Gori A, Vittecoq D, et al.  GCS 309 European Study Group Lenograstim for the treatment of neutropenia in patients receiving ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus infection: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial in AIDS patients. Eur J Haematol. 2000;65:337–343
  59. Dugel PU, Liggett PE, Lee MB, et al.  Repair of retinal detachment caused by cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;112:235–242
  60. Dugel PU, Rao NA, Forster DJ, et al.  Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis after long-term aerosolized pentamidine therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110:113–117
  61. Emery VC, Hassan-Walker AF. Focus on new drugs in development against human cytomegalovirus. Drugs. 2002;62:1853–1858
  62. Engstrom RE, Holland GN, Margolis TP, et al.  The progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome. A variant of necrotizing herpetic retinopathy in patients with AIDS. Ophthalmology. 1994;101:1488–1502
  63. Engstrom RE, Holland GN, Hardy WD, Meiselman HJ. Hemorheologic abnormalities in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection and ophthalmic microvasculopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;109:153–161
  64. Espana-Gregori E, Hernandez M, Menezo-Rozalen JL, Diaz-Llopis M. Metastatic anterior chamber non-Hodgkin lymphoma in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;124:243–245
  65. Faber DW, Wiley CA, Lynn GB, et al.  Role of HIV and CMV in the pathogenesis of retinitis and retinal vasculopathy in AIDS patients. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1992;33:2345
  66. Falcone PM, Notis C, Merhige K. Toxoplasmic papillitis as the initial manifestation of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Ophthalmol. 1993;25:56–57
  67. Fekrat S, Dunn JP, Lee D, et al.  Cytomegalovirus retinitis in HIV-infected patients with elevated CD4+ counts. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113:18
  68. Forster DJ, Dugel PU, Frangieh GT, et al.  Rapidly progressive outer retinal necrosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110:341–348
  69. Foster RE, Lowder CY, Meisler DM, et al.  Presumed Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis. Unifocal presentation, regression with intravenous pentamidine, and choroiditis recurrence. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:1360–1365
  70. Franco-Paredes C, Bellehemeur T, Merchant A, et al.  Aseptic meningitis and optic neuritis preceding varicella-zoster progressive outer retinal necrosis in a patient with AIDS. AIDS. 2002;16:1045–1049
  71. Freeman WR, Chen A, Henderly DE, et al.  Prevalence and significance of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related retinal microvasculopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;107:229–235
  72. Freeman WR, Friedberg DN, Berry C, et al.  Risk factors for development of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;116:713–720
  73. Freeman WR, Gross JG, Labelle J, et al.  Pneumocystis carinii choroidopathy. A new clinical entity. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107:863–867
  74. Freeman WR, Quiceno JI, Crapotta JA, et al.  Surgical repair of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment in immunosuppressed patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:466–474
  75. Friedberg DN, Warren FA, Lee MH, et al.  Pneumocystis carinii of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;113:595–596
  76. Friedlander SM, Rahhal FM, Ericson L, et al.  Optic neuropathy preceding acute retinal necrosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:1481–1485
  77. Friedman SM, Margo CE. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusions in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clinico-pathologic correlations. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113:1184–1188
  78. Gagliuso DJ, Teich SA, Friedman AH, Orellana J. Ocular toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1990;88:63–86
  79. Gariano RF, Berreen JP, Cooney EL. Progressive outer retinal necrosis and acute retinal necrosis in fellow eyes of a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132:421–423
  80. Garrity JA, Herman DC, Imes R, et al.  Opthic nerve sheath decompression for visual loss in patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and cryptococcal meningitis with papilledema. Am J Opthlamol. 1993;116:472–478
  81. Geier SA, Nasemann J, Klauss V, et al.  Frosted branch angiitis in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;114:203–204
  82. Gerna G, Piccinini G, Genini E, et al.  Declining levels of rescued lymphoproliferative response to human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in AIDS patients with or without HCMV disease following long-term HAART. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001;28:320–323
  83. Gilks CF. The clinical challenge of the HIV epidemic in the developing world. Lancet. 1993;342:1037–1039
  84. Girard B, Prevost-Moravia G, Courpotin C, Lasfargues G. [Ophthalmologic manifestations observed in a pediatric HIV-seropositive population]. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1997;20:49–60
  85. Girard B, Thenot JC, Topouzis F, et al.  [Homonymous lateral quadranopsia disclosing cerebral toxoplasmosis in a patient with AIDS]. Bull Soc Ophtalmol Fr. 1989;89:1373–1378
  86. Golnik KC, Newman SA, Wispelway B. Cryptococcal optic neuropathy in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1991;11:96–103
  87. Gordon SM, Eaton ME, George R, et al.  The response of symptomatic neurosyphilis to high dose intravenous penicillin G in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1469–1473
  88. Grossniklaus HE, Specht CS, Allaire G, Leavitt JA. Toxoplasma gondii retinochoroiditis and optic neuritis in acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Report of a case. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:1342–1346
  89. Guembel HO, Krieglsteiner S, Rosenkranz C, et al.  Complications after implantation of intraocular devices in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1999;237:824–829
  90. Guex-Crosier Y, Rochat C, Herbort CP. Necrotizing herpetic retinopathies. A spectrum of herpes virus-induced diseases determined by the immune state of the host. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1997;5:259–265
  91. Haas JS, Bolan G, Larsen SA, et al.  Sensitivity of treponemal tests for detecting prior treated syphilis during human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis. 1990;162:862–866
  92. Hammond CJ, Evans JA, Shah SM, et al.  The spectrum of eye disease in children with AIDS due to vertically transmitted HIV disease: clinical findings, virology and recommendations for surveillance. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1997;235:125–129
  93. Hardy D, Spector S, Polsky B, et al.  Combination of ganciclovir and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS patients. The ACTG 073 Team. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994;13(Suppl 2):S34–S40
  94. Heinemann MH, Gold JM, Maisel J. Bilateral toxoplasma retinochoroiditis in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Retina. 1986;6:224–227
  95. Hicks CB, Benson PM, Lupton GP, Tramont EC. Seronegative secondary syphilis in a patient with immunosdeficiency virus (HIV) with Kaposi Sarcoma: a diagnositic dilemma. Ann Intern Med. 1987;107:492–494
  96. Hodge WG, Seiff SR, Margolis TP. Ocular opportunistic infection incidences among patients who are HIV positive compared to patients who are HIV negative. Ophthalmology. 1998;105:895–900
  97. Holbrook JT, Jabs DA, Weinberg DV, et al.  Visual loss in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome before widespread availability of highly active antiretiroviral therapy. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121:99–107
  98. Holland GN, Engstrom RE, Glasgow BJ, et al.  Ocular toxoplasmosis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988;106:653–667
  99. Honrubia FM, Ferrer E, Torron C, Gonzalez I. Study of the retinal fiber layer in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ger J Ophthalmol. 1994;3:1–4
  100. Hsieh SM, Pan SC, Hung CC, et al.  Association between cytomegalovirus-specific reactivity of T cell subsets and development of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Infect Dis. 2001;184:1386–1391
  101. Irvine AR, Lonn L, Schwartz D, et al.  Retinal detachment in AIDS: long-term results after repair with silicone oil. Br J Ophthalmol. 1997;81:180–183
  102. Ismail Y, Nemechek PM, Arsura EL. A rare cause of visual loss in AIDS patients: central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1993;77:600–601
  103. Ives NJ, Gazzard BG, Easterbrook PJ. The changing pattern of AIDS-defining illnesses with the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in a London clinic. J Infect. 2001;42:134–139
  104. Jabs DA, Enger C, Bartlett JG. Cytomegalovirus retinitis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107:75–80
  105. Jabs DA, Enger C, Dunn JP, Forman M. Cytomegalovirus retinitis and viral resistance: ganciclovir resistance. CMV Retinitis and Viral Resistance Study Group. J Infect Dis. 1998;177:770–773
  106. Jabs DA, Enger C, Forman M, Dunn JP. Incidence of foscarnet resistance and cidofovir resistance in patients treated for cytomegalovirus retinitis. The Cytomegalovirus Retinitis and Viral Resistance Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:2240–2244
  107. Jabs DA, Enger C, Haller J, de Bustros S. Retinal detachments in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991;109:794–799
  108. Jabs DA, Martin BK, Forman MS, et al.  The Cytomegalovirus Retinitis and Viral Resistance Study Group: Longitudinal observations on mutations conferring ganciclovir resistance in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and cytomegalovirus retinitis: The Cytomegalovirus and Viral Resistance Study Group Report Number 8. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132:700–710
  109. Jabs DA, Schachat AP, Liss R, et al.  Presumed varicella-zoster retinitis in immunocompromised patients. Retina. 1987;7:9–13
  110. Jabs DA, Van Natta ML, Kempen JH, et al.  Characteristics of patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133:48–61
  111. Jabs DA. Ocular manifestations of HIV infection. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1995;93:623–683
  112. Jacobson MA, Schrier R, McCune JM, et al.  Cytomegalovirus (CMV)-specific CD4+ T lymphocyte immune function in long-term survivors of AIDS-related CMV end-organ disease who are receiving potent antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:1399–1404
  113. Jacobson MA, Wilson S, Stanley H, et al.  Phase I study of combination therapy with intravenous cidofovir and oral ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28:528–533
  114. Jacobson MA, Zegans M, Pavan PR, et al.  Cytomegalovirus retinitis after initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Lancet. 1997;349:1443–1445
  115. Jacobson MA. Cytomegalovirus retinitis after initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Lancet. 1997;350:590
  116. Johns DR, Tierny M, Felsenstein D. Alteration in the natural history of neurosyphilis by concurrent infeciton with the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:1569–1572
  117. Johnson PD, Graves SR, Stewart L, et al.  Specific syphilis serological tests may become negative in HIV infection. AIDS. 1991;5:419–423
  118. Johnson SC, Benson CA, Johnson DW, Weinberg A. Recurrences of cytomegalovirus retinitis in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected patient, despite potent antiretroviral therapy and apparent immune reconstitution. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:815–819
  119. Johnston SR, Corbett EL, Foster O, et al.  Raised intracranial pressure and visual complications in AIDS patients with cryptococcal meningitis. J Infect. 1992;24:185–189
  120. Jouan M, Saves M, Tubiana R, RESTIMOP study team , et al.  Discontinuation of maintenance therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2001;15:23–31
  121. Karavellas MP, Azen SP, MacDonald JC, et al.  Immune recovery vitritis and uveitis in AIDS: clinical predictors, sequelae, and treatment outcomes. Retina. 2001;21:1–9
  122. Karavellas MP, Song M, McDonald JC, Freeman WR. Longterm posterior and anterior segment complications of immune recovery uveitis associated with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130:57–64
  123. Karp CL, Scott IU, Chang TS, Pflugfelder SC. Conjunctival intraepithelial neoplasia. A possible marker for HIV infection?. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:257–261
  124. Kashiwase M, Sata T, Yamauchi Y, et al.  Progressive outer retinal necrosis caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:790–794
  125. Keane JR. Neuro-ophthalmologic signs of AIDS: 50 patients. Neurology. 1991;41:841–845
  126. Keane NM, Price P, Stone SF, et al.  Assessment of immune function by lymphoproliferation underestimates lymphocyte functional capacity in HIV patients treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2000;16:1991–1996
  127. Kempen JH, Jabs DA, Dunn JP, West SK, Tonascia J. Retinal detachment risk in cytomegalovirus retinitis related to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:33–40
  128. Kersten A, Althaus C, Hudde T, et al.  Intravitreal injection of cidofovir in cytomegalovirus retinitis Ophthalmologe. 1998;95:602–606
  129. Kestelyn P, Lepage P, Karita E, Van de Perre P. Ocular manifestations of infection with the human immunodeficiency virus in an African pediatric population. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2000;8:263–273
  130. Kestelyn P, Stevens AM, Ndayambaje A, et al.  HIV and conjunctival malignancies. Lancet. 1990;336:51–52
  131. Kestelyn P, Taelman H, Bogaerts J, et al.  Ophthalmic manifestations of infections with Cryptococcus neoformans in patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthlamol. 1993;116:721–727
  132. Kestelyn PG, Cunningham ET. HIV/AIDS and blindness. Bull World Health Organ. 2001;79:208–213
  133. Knox DL, Green WR. Pneumocystis carinii granuloma of the optic nerve: a histopathologic case report. J Neuroophthalmol. 2001;21:274–275
  134. Komanduri KV, Feinberg J, Hutchins RK, et al.  Loss of cytomegalovirus-specific CD4+ T cell responses in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected patients with high CD4+ T cell counts and recurrent retinitis. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:1285–1289
  135. Kuo IC, Kapusta MA, Rao NA. Vitritis as the primary manifestation of ocular syphilis in patients with HIV infection. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:306–311
  136. Kupfer C, McCrane E. A possible cause of decreased vision in cryptococcal meningitis. Invest Opthalmol. 1974;13:801–804
  137. Kuppermann BD, Flores-Aguilar M, Quiceno JI, et al.  A masked prospective evaluation of outcome parameters for cytomegalovirus-related retinal detachment surgery in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1994;101:46–55
  138. Kuppermann BD, Petty JG, Richman DD, et al.  Correlation between CD4+ counts and prevalence of cytomegalovirus retinitis and human immunodeficiency virus-related noninfectious retinal vasculopathy in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;115:575–582
  139. Kuppermann BD, Quiceno JI, Wiley C, et al.  Clinical and histopathologic study of varicella zoster virus retinitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;118:589–600
  140. Lafeuillade A, Aubert L, Chaffanjon P, Quilichini R. Optic neuritis associated with dideoxyinosine. Lancet. 1991;337:615–616
  141. Lalezari JP, Friedberg DN, Bissett J, et al.  High dose oral ganciclovir treatment for cytomegalovirus retinitis. J Clin Virol. 2002;24:67–77
  142. Lalezari JP, Holland GN, Kramer F, et al.  Randomized, controlled study of the safety and efficacy of intravenous cidofovir for the treatment of relapsing cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998;17:339–344
  143. Lalezari J, Lindley J, Walmsley S, et al. , Roche Valganciclovir Study Group   A safety study of oral valganciclovir maintenance treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30:392–400
  144. Lanska DJ. Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus infection and associated neurologic illness. Semin Neurol. 1999;19:105–111
  145. Lee LC, Howes EL, Bhisitkul RB. Systemic non-Hodgkin's lymphoma with optic nerve infiltration in a patient with AIDS. Retina. 2002;22:75–79
  146. Lee MS, Cooney EL, Stoessel KM, Gariano RF. Varicella zoster virus retrobulbar optic neuritis preceding retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1998;105:467–471
  147. Lee YF, Chen SJ, Chung YM, Liu JH, Wong WW. Diffuse toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis as the initial manifestation of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Formos Med Assoc. 2000;99:219–223
  148. Legendre U, Battegay M, Nuttli I, Dalquen P, Nuesch R. Simultaneous occurrence of 2 HIV-related immunereconstitution diseases after initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Scand J Infect Dis. 2001;33:388–389
  149. Lehoang P, Girard B, Robinet M, et al.  Foscarnet in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1989;96:865–873
  150. Levinson RD, Vann R, Davis JL, et al.  Chronic multifocal retinal infiltrates in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:312–324
  151. Levy JH, Liss RA, Maguire AM. Neurosyphilis and ocular syphilis in patients with concurrent human immunodeficiency virus infection. Retina. 1989;9:175–180
  152. Lewallen S, Courtright P. HIV and AIDS and the eye in developing countries. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:1291–1295
  153. Lewallen S, Kumwenda J, Maher D, Harries AD. Retinal findings in Malawian patients with AIDS. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78:757–759
  154. Lewis JM, Puklin JE. Varicella-zoster virus retinitis presenting as an acute vitreous hemorrhage. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:104–105
  155. Lim JI, Enger C, Haller JA, et al.  Improved visual results after surgical repair of cytomegalovirus-related retinal detachments. Ophthalmology. 1994;101:264–269
  156. Lim JI, Wolitz RA, Dowling AH, et al.  Visual and anatomic outcomes associated with posterior segment complications after ganciclovir implant procedures in patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127:288–293
  157. Lin AP, Holland GN, Engstrom RE. Vitrectomy and silicone oil tamponade for cidofovir-associated hypotony with ciliary body detachment. Retina. 1999;19:75–76
  158. Livingston PG, Kerr NC, Sullivan JL. Ocular disease in children with vertically acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection. J AAPOS. 1998;2:177–181
  159. Macdonald JC, Karavellas MP, Torriani FJ, et al.  Highly active antiretroviral therapy-related immune recovery in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:877–881
  160. Macdonald JC, Torriani FJ, Morse LS, et al.  Lack of reactivation of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis after stopping CMV maintenance therapy in AIDS patients with sustained elevations in CD4 T cells in response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis. 1998;177:1182–1187
  161. Macher A, Rodrigues MM, Kaplan W, et al.  Disseminated bilateral chorioretinitis due to histoplasma capsulatum in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1985;92:1159–1164
  162. Manfredi R, Pieri F, Pileri SA, Chiodo F. The changing face of AIDS-related opportunism: cryptococcosis in the highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) era. Case reports and literature review. Mycopathologia. 1999;148:73–78
  163. MacLean H, Ironside J, Dhillon B. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related primary central nervous system lymphoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112:269–271
  164. Mansour AM, Li HK. Cytomegalovirus optic neuritis: characteristics, therapy and survival. Ophthalmologica. 1995;209:260–266
  165. Mansour AM, Li HK. Frosted retinal periphlebitis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ophthalmologica. 1993;207:182–186
  166. Mansour AM. Neuro-ophthalmic findings in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1990;10:167–174
  167. Margolis TP, Lowder CY, Holland GN, et al.  Varicella-zoster virus retinitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;112:119–131
  168. Margolis TP, Milner MS, Shama A, et al.  Herpes zoster ophthalmicus in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:285–291
  169. Margraf S, Bittoova M, Vogel JU, et al.  Antisense oligonucleotide ISIS 2922 targets IE-expression and prevents HCMV-IE-induced suppression of TSP-1 and TSP-2 expression. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids. 2002;20:1425–1428
  170. Martin DF, Dunn JP, Davis JL, et al.  Use of the ganciclovir implant for the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: recommendations of the International AIDS Society-USA panel. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127:329–339
  171. Martin DF, Ferris FL, Parks DJ, et al.  Ganciclovir implant exchange. Timing, surgical procedure, and complications. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:1389–1394
  172. Martin DF, Kuppermann BD, Wolitz RA, et al.  Roche Ganciclovir Study Group: Oral ganciclovir for patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis treated with a ganciclovir implant. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1063–1070
  173. Martin DF, Sierra-Madero J, Walmsley S, et al. , The Valganciclovir Study Group   A controlled trial of valganciclovir as induction therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1119–1126
  174. Matzkin DC, Slamovits TL, Rosenbaum PS. Simultaneous intraocular and orbital non-Hodgkin lymphoma in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1994;101:850–855
  175. McGowan JP, Shah S. Long-term remission of AIDS-related primary central nervous system lymphoma associated with highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 1998;12:952–954
  176. McGuire DE, McAulife P, Heinemann MH, Rahhal FM. Efficacy of the ganciclovir implant in the setting of silicone oil vitreous substitute. Retina. 2000;20:520–523
  177. McLeish WM, Pulido JS, Holland S, et al.  The ocular manifestations of syphilis in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected host. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:196–203
  178. Meenken C, van den Horn GJ, de Smet MD, van der Meer JT. Optic neuritis heralding varicella zoster virus retinitis in a patient with acquired immunodefieciency syndrome. Ann Neurol. 1998;43:534–536
  179. Mendelsohn AD, Jampol LM. Syphilitic retinitis. A cause of necrotizing retinitis. Retina. 1984;4:221–224
  180. Miles SA, Golde DW, Mitsuyasu RT. The use of hematopoietic hormones in HIV infection and AIDS-related malignancies. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 1991;5:267–280
  181. Mittra RA, Pulido JS, Hanson GA, et al.  Primary ocular Epstein-Barr virus-associated non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in a patient with AIDS: a clinicopathologic report. Retina. 1999;19:45–50
  182. Moorthy RS, Smith RE, Rao NA. Progressive ocular toxoplasmosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;115:742–747
  183. Moorthy RS, Weinberg DV, Teich SA, et al.  Management of varicella zoster virus retinitis in AIDS. Br J Ophthalmol. 1997;81:189–194
  184. Morales HV. Punctate outer retinal toxoplasmosis in an HIV-positive child. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1999;7:93–95
  185. Morinelli EN, Dugel PU, Riffenburgh R, Rao NA. Infectious multifocal choroiditis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1993;100:1014–1021
  186. Muccioli C, Belfort R, Lottenberg C, et al.  [Ophthalmological manifestations in AIDS: evaluation of 445 patients in one year]. Rev Assoc Med Bras. 1994;40:155–158
  187. Muccioli C, Belfort R, Neves R, Rao N. Limbal and choroidal Cryptococcus infection in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;120:539–540
  188. Mukadi YD, Maher D, Harries A. Tuberculosis case fatality rates in high HIV prevalence populations in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS. 2001;15:143–152
  189. Mulamba GB, Hu A, Azad RF, et al.  Human cytomegalovirus mutant with sequence-dependent resistance to the phosphorothioate oligonucleotide fomivirsen (ISIS 2922). Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:971–973
  190. Musch DC, Martin DF, Gordon JF, et al.  Treatments of cytomegalovirus retinitis with a sustained release ganciclovir implant, The Ganciclovir Implant Study Group. New Engl J Med. 1997;337:83–90
  191. Musher DM, Baugh RE. Syphilis. In:  Broder SJ,  Merigan TC,  Bolognsi D editor. Textbook of AIDS Medicine. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1994;p. 295–300
  192. Musher DM, Baughn RE. Neurosyphilis in HIV-infected persons. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1516–1517
  193. Musher DM, Hamill RJ, Baughn RE. Effect of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection on the course of syphilis and on the response to treatment. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:872–881
  194. Nasir S, DeAngelis LM. Update on the management of primary CNS lymphoma. Oncology. 2000;14:228–234
  195. Newsome DA, Green WR, Miller ED, et al.  Microvascular aspects of acquired immune deficiency syndrome retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1984;98:590–601
  196. Nguyen N, Rimmer S, Katz B. Slowed saccades in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;107:356–360
  197. Nguyen QD, Kempen JH, Bolton SG, et al.  Immune recovery uveitis in patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis after highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129:634–639
  198. Okun E, Butler WT. Ophthalmologic complications of cryptococcal meningitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1964;71:52–57
  199. Oral Ganciclovir European and Australian Cooperative Group . Intravenous versus oral ganciclovir: European/Australian comparative study of efficacy and safety in the prevention of cytomegalovirus retinitis recurrence in patients with AIDS. AIDS. 1995;9:471–477
  200. Orellana J, Teich SA, Lieberman RM, et al.  Treatment of retinal detachments in patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:939–943
  201. Ormerod LD, Larkin JA, Margo CA, et al.  Rapidly progressive herpetic retinal necrosis: a blinding disease characteristic of advanced AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:34–45
  202. Ormerod LD, Puklin JE. AIDS-associated intraocular lymphoma causing primary retinal vasculitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1997;5:271–278
  203. Ormerod LD, Rhodes RH, Gross SA, et al.  Ophthalmologic manifestations of acquired immune deficiency syndromeassociated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:899–906
  204. Palestine AG, Frishberg B. Macular edema in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related microvasculopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;111:770–771
  205. Palestine AG, Polis MA, De Smet MD, et al.  A randomized, controlled trial of foscarnet in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115:665–673
  206. Park KL, Marx JL, Lopez PF, Rao NA. Noninfectious branch retinal vein occlusion in HIV-positive patients. Retina. 1997;17:162–164
  207. Parke DW, Font RL. Diffuse toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis in a patient with AIDS. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986;104:571–575
  208. Passo MA, Rosenbaum JT. Ocular syphilis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Opthalmol. 1988;106:1–6
  209. Pepose JS, Holland GN, Nestor MS, Cochran AJ, Foos RY. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome: Pathogenic mechanisms of ocular disease. Ophthalmology. 1985;92:472–484
  210. Perez-Blazquez E, Traspas R, Mendez Marin I, Montero M. Intravitreal ganciclovir treatment in progressive outer retinal necrosis. AIDS. 2002;16:1045–1049
  211. Perkins SL, Yang CH, Ashton PA, Jaffe GJ. Pharmacokinetics of the ganciclovir implant in the silicone-filled eye. Retina. 2001;21:10–14
  212. Piccinini G, Comolli G, Genini E, et al.  Comparative analysis of human cytomegalovirus-specific CD4(+) T-cell frequency and lymphoproliferative response in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2001;8:1225–1230
  213. Pomerantz RJ, Kuritzkes DR, de la Monte SM, et al.  Infection of the retina by human immunodeficiency virus type I. New Engl J of Med. 1987;317:1643–1647
  214. Price P, Mathiot N, Krueger R, et al.  Immune dysfunction and immune restoration disease in HIV patients given highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Clin Virol. 2001;22:279–287
  215. Raina J, Bainbridge JW, Shah SM. Decreased visual acuity in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis and AIDS. Eye. 2000;14:8–12
  216. Ramsay A, Young S, Lightman S. Failure of antiretroviral therapy to control Varicella zoster retinitis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2001;29:433–434
  217. Rao NA, Zimmerman PL, Boyer D, et al.  A clinical, histopathologic, and electron microscopic study of Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;107:218–228
  218. Razavi S, Bego B, Kabbani J, et al.  Cryptococcal chorioretinitis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1997;20:689–692
  219. Reed JB, Briggs JW, McDonald JC, et al.  Highly active antiretroviral therapy-associated regression of cytomegalovirus retinitis: long-term results in a small case series. Retina. 2001;21:339–343
  220. Reed JB, Schwab IR, Gordon J, Morse LS. Regression of cytomegalovirus retinitis associated with protease-inhibitor treatment in patients with AIDS. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;124:199–205
  221. Rehder JR, Burnier MB, Pavesio CE, et al.  Acute unilateral toxoplasmic iridocyclitis in an AIDS patient. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988;106:740–741
  222. Remick SC, Sedransk N, Haase RF, et al.  Oral combination chemotherapy in conjunction with filgrastim (G-CSF) in the treatment of AIDS-related non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: evaluation of the role of G-CSF; quality-of-life analysis and long-term follow-up. Am J Hematol. 2001;66:178–188
  223. Rex JH, Larsen RA, Dismukes WE, et al.  Catastrophic visual loss due to Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis. Medicine. 1993;72:207–224
  224. Rivero ME, Kuppermann BD, Wiley CA, et al.  Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related intraocular B-cell lymphoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999;117:616–622
  225. Roberts SP, Haefs TM. Central retinal vein occlusion in a middle-aged adult with HIV infection. Optom Vis Sci. 1992;69:567–569
  226. Robinson MR, Reed G, Csaky KG, et al.  Immune-recovery uveitis in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis taking highly active antiretroviral therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130:49–56
  227. Robinson MR, Streeten BW, Hampton GR, et al.  Treatment of cytomegalovirus optic neuritis with dihydroxy propoxymethyl guanine. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;102:533–534
  228. Roig-Melo EA, Macky TA, Heredia-Elizondo ML, Alfaro DV. Progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome: successful treatment with a new combination of antiviral drugs. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2001;11:200–202
  229. Ronday MJH, Welbeck RO, Chana HS, et al.  Analysis of infectious causes of uveitis in Zimbabwe using aqueous humor analysis. In:  Ronday MJH editors. Uveitis in Africa. Amsterdam: Netherlands Ophthalmic Research Institute; 1996;
  230. Rose DN, Sacks HS. Cost-effectiveness of cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease prevention in patients with AIDS: oral ganciclovir and CMV polymerase chain reaction testing. AIDS. 1997;11:883–887
  231. Rosenblatt MA, Cunningham C, Teich S, Friedman AH. Choroidal lesions in patients with AIDS. Br J Ophthalmol. 1990;74:610–614
  232. Rosenthal G, Bartz-Schmidt KU, Walter P, et al.  Failure of sorivudine therapy in progressive outer retinal necrosis caused by varicella zoster virus. Aust NZ J Ophthalmol. 1998;26:327–328
  233. Ross WH, Bryan JS, Barloon AS. Management of retinal detachments secondary to cytomegalovirus retinitis. Can J Ophthalmol. 1994;29:129–133
  234. Roth DB, Feuer WJ, Blenke AJ, Davis JL. Treatment of recurrent cytomegalovirus retinitis with the ganciclovir implant. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127:276–282
  235. Ruggli GM, Weber R, Messmer EP, et al.  Pneumocystis carinii infection of the conjunctiva in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:1853–1855
  236. Saadati HG, Khan IA, Lin XH, et al.  Immunolocalization of IL-1beta and IL-6 in optic nerves of patients with AIDS. Curr Eye Res. 1999;19:264–268
  237. Saag MS, Graybill RJ, Larsen RA, et al.  Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:710–718
  238. Sacktor N. The epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated neurological disease in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Neurovirol. 2002;8(Suppl 2):115–121
  239. Sadun AA, Pepose JS, Madigan MC, et al.  AIDS-related optic neuropathy: a histological, virological and ultrastructural study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1995;233:387–398
  240. Schaller UC, MacDonald JC, Mueller AJ, et al.  Removal of silicone oil with vision improvement after rhegmatogenous retinal detachment following CMV retinitis in patients with AIDS. Retina. 1999;19:495–498
  241. Schanzer MC, Font RL, O' Malley RE. Primary ocular malignant lymphoma associated with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:88–89
  242. Schiemann U, Steins M, Knospe V, et al.  Coincidence of cytomegalovirus retinitis and central retinal vein occlusion in a patient with hemophilia B and AIDS. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 1999;13:7–9
  243. Schimkat M, Althaus C, Armbrecht C, et al.  [Treatment of toxoplasmosis retinochoroiditis with atovaquone in an AIDS patient]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1995;206:173–177
  244. Sellitti TP, Huang AJ, Schiffman J, Davis JL. Association of herpes zoster ophthalmicus with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and acute retinal necrosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;116:297–301
  245. Sha BE, Benson CA, Deutsch T, et al.  Pneumocystis carinii choroiditis in patients with AIDS: clinical features, response to therapy, and outcome. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1992;5:1051–1058
  246. Shalaby IA, Dunn JP, Semba RD, Jabs DA. Syphilitic uveitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:469–473
  247. Shami MJ, Freeman W, Friedberg D, et al.  A multicenter study of pneumocystis choroidopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;112:15–22
  248. Shayegani A, Odel JG, Kazim M, et al.  Varicell zoster virus retrobulbar optic neuritis in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Opthalmol. 1996;122:586–588
  249. Sidikaro Y, Silver L, Holland GN, Kreiger AE. Rhegmatogenous retinal detachments in patients with AIDS and necrotizing retinal infections. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:129–135
  250. Sison RF, Holland GN, MacArthur LJ, et al.  Cytomegalovirus retinopathy as the initial manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;112:243–245
  251. Skiest DJ, Chiller T, Chiller K, et al.  Protease inhibitor therapy is associated with markedly prolonged time to relapse and improved survival in AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis. Int J STD AIDS. 2001;12:659–664
  252. Skiest DJ. Focal neurological disease in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:103–115
  253. Smith IL, Taskintuna I, Rahhal FM, et al.  Clinical failure of CMV retinitis with intravitreal cidofovir is associated with antiviral resistance. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:178–185
  254. Soriano V, Dona C, Rodriguez-Rosado R, et al.  Discontinuation of secondary prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2000;14:383–386
  255. Specht CS, Mitchell KT, Bauman AC, Gupta M. Ocular histoplasmosis with retinitis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:1356–1359
  256. Spector SA, McKinley GF, Lalezari JP, et al. , the Roche Cooperative Oral Ganciclovir Study Group   Oral ganciclovir for the prevention of cytomegalovirus disease in persons with AIDS. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1491–1497
  257. Spector SA, Weingeist T, Pollard RB, et al.  A randomized, controlled clinical study of intravenous ganciclovir therapy for cytomegalovirus peripheral retinitis in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis. 1993;168:557–563
  258. Spector SA. Pharmakinetic, safety, and antiviral profiles of oral ganciclovir in persons infected with the human immune deficiency virus; A Phase I/II Study. AIDS Clinical Trial Groups and Cytomegalovirus Cooperative Study. J of Infect Dis. 1995;171:1431–1437
  259. Spiegel HM, Ogg GS, DeFalcon E, et al.  Human immunodeficiency virus type 1- and cytomegalovirus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes can persist at high frequency for prolonged periods in the absence of circulating peripheral CD4(+) T cells. J Virol. 2000;74:1018–1022
  260. Stanton CA, Sloan B, Slusher MM, Greven CM. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related primary intraocular lymphoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110:1614–1617
  261. Stier PA, Glazer LC, Garretson BR, Deutsch TA. Surgical repair of retinal detachment secondary to cytomegalovirus retinitis. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1999;30:289–294
  262. Stone TW, Jaffe GJ. Reversible bull's-eye maculopathy associated with intravitreal fomivirsen therapy for cytomegalovirus retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130:242–243
  263. Stoumbos VD, Klein ML. Syphilitic retinitis in a patient with aquired immunodeficiency syndrome-related complex. Am J Ophthalmol. 1987;103:103–104
  264. Studies of Ocular Complications of AIDS Research Group . Mortality in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome treated with either foscarnet or ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus retinitis. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:213–220
  265. Studies of Ocular Complications of AIDS Research Group in collaboration with AIDS Clinical Trials Group . Antiviral effects of foscarnet and ganciclovir therapy on human immunodeficiency virus p24 antigen in patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:613–621
  266. Studies of Ocular Complications of AIDS Research Group in collaboration with the AIDS Clinical Trials Group . Foscarnet-Ganciclovir Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial 4. Visual outcomes. Ophthalmology. 1994;101:1250–1261
  267. Studies of ocular complications of AIDS Research Group in collaboration with the AIDS Clinical Trials Group . Foscarnet-Ganciclovir Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial 5. Clinical features of cytomegalovirus retinitis at diagnosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;124:141–157
  268. Studies of Ocular Complications of AIDS Research Group in collaboration with the AIDS Clinical Trials Group . Foscarnet-Ganciclovir Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial Report 8: Clinical vs. photographic assessment of treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:848–855
  269. Studies of Ocular Complications of AIDS Research Group in collaboration with the AIDS Clinical Trials Group . Long-term follow-up of patients with AIDS treated with parenteral cidofovir for cytomegalovirus retinitis: the HPMPC Peripheral Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial. AIDS. 2000;14:1571–1581
  270. Studies of ocular complications of AIDS Research Group, in collaboration with the AIDS Clinical Trials Group . Morbidity and toxic effects associated with ganciclovir or foscarnet therapy in a randomized cytomegalovirus retinitis trial. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:65–74
  271. Studies of Ocular complications of AIDS Research Group in Collaboration with the AIDS Clinical Trials Group . Parenteral cidofovir for cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS: the HPMPC peripheral cytomegalovirus retinitis trial. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:264–274
  272. Studies of Ocular Complications of AIDS (SOCA) Research Group in Collaboration with the AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) . Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis: the Foscarnet-Ganciclovir Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;124:61–70
  273. Sukthana Y, Chintana T, Lekkla A. Toxoplasma gondii antibody in HIV-infected persons. J Med Assoc Thai. 2000;83:681–684
  274. Taiwo BO. AIDS-related primary CNS lymphoma: a brief review. AIDS Read. 2000;10:486–491
  275. Tan CT. Intracranial hypertension causing visual failure in Cryptococcus meningitis. J Neurol Neruosurg Psychiatry. 1988;51:944–946
  276. Taskintuna I, Rahhal FM, Arevalo JF, et al.  Low-dose intravitreal cidofovir (HPMPC) therapy of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:1049–1057
  277. Taskintuna I, Rahhal FM, Rao NA, et al.  Adverse events and autopsy findings after intravitreous cidofovir (HPMPC) therapy in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ophthalmology. 1997;104:1827–1836
  278. Teich SA, Sonnabend J. Central retinal vein occlusion in a patient with AIDS. Case report. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106:1508–1509
  279. Tenhula WN, Xu SZ, Madigan MC, et al.  Morphometric comparisons of optic nerve axon loss in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;113:14–20
  280. Thurnher MM, Rieger A, Kleibl-Popov C, et al.  Primary central nervous system lymphoma in AIDS: a wider spectrum of CT and MRI findings. Neuroradiology. 2001;43:29–35
  281. Torriani FJ, Freeman WR, Macdonald JC, et al.  CMV retinitis recurs after stopping treatment in virological and immunological failures of potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2000;14:173–180
  282. Toshniwal P. Optic perineuritis with secondary syphilis. J Clin Neuro Ophthalmol. 1987;7:6–10
  283. Tramont EC. Syphilis in HIV-infected persons. AIDS Clin Rev. 1993–94;61–72
  284. Tufail A, Holland GN, Fisher TC, et al.  Increased polymorphonuclear leucocyte rigidity in HIV infected individuals. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84:727–731
  285. Tural C, Romeu J, Sirera G, et al.  Long-lasting remission of cytomegalovirus retinitis without maintenance therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Infect Dis. 1998;177:1080–1083
  286. Ussery FM, Gibson SR, Conklin RH, et al.  Intravitreal ganciclovir in the treatment of AIDS-associated cytomegalovirus retinitis. Ophthalmology. 1988;95:640–648
  287. Van de Perre P, Bakkers E, Batungwanao J, et al.  Herpes zoster in African patients: an early manifestation of HIV infection. Scand J Infect Dis. 1988;20:277–282
  288. Verbraak FD, Galema M, van den Horn GH, et al.  Serological and polymerase chain reaction-based analysis of aqueous humour samples in patients with AIDS and necrotizing retinitis. AIDS. 1996;10:1091–1099
  289. Verma S, Graham EM. Cryptococcus presenting as a cloudy choroiditis in an AIDS patient. Br J Ophthalmol. 1995;79:618–619
  290. Villacres MC, Lacey SF, La Rosa C, et al.  Human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy maintain activated CD8+ T cell subsets as a strong adaptive immune response to cytomegalovirus. J Infect Dis. 2001;184:256–267
  291. Vitravene Study Group . A randomized controlled clinical trial of intravitreous fomivirsen for treatment of newly diagnosed peripheral cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133:467–474
  292. Vitravene Study Group . Randomized dose-comparison studies of intravitreous fomivirsen for treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis that has reactivated or is persistently active despite other therapies in patients with AIDS. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133:475–483
  293. Vitravene Study Group . Safety of intravitreous fomivirsen for treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with AIDS. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133:484–498
  294. Vrabec TR, Baldassano VF, Whitcup SM. Discontinuation of maintenance therapy in patients with quiescent cytomegalovirus retinitis and elevated CD4+ counts. Ophthalmology. 1998;105:1259–1264
  295. Vrabec TR. Laser demarcation of macula-sparing cytomegalovirus retinitis-related retinal detachments. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:2062–2067
  296. Waddell KM, Lewallen S, Lucas SB, et al.  Carcinoma of the conjunctiva and HIV infection in Uganda and Malawi. Br J Ophthlamol. 1996;80:503–508
  297. Waddell KM, Lucas SB, Downing RG. Case reports and small case series: conjunctival cryptococcosis in the acquired imunodefiecny syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 2000;118:1452–1453
  298. Walton RC, Byrnes GA, Chan CC, Nussenblatt RB. Fluorescein angiography in the progressive outer retinal necrosis syndrome. Retina. 1996;16:393–398
  299. Wei ME, Campbell SH, Taylor C. Precipitous visual loss secondary to optic nerve toxoplasmosis as an unusual presentation of AIDS. Aust NZ J Ophthalmol. 1996;24:75–77
  300. Wein F, Francis GS, Gans MS, Connolly WE, Burnier MN. Neuro-ophthalmic findings in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Can J Ophthalmol. 1998;33:270–275
  301. Whitcup SM, Fenton RM, Pluda JM, et al.  Pneumocystis carinii and Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection of the choroid. Retina. 1992;12:331–335
  302. Whitcup SM. Cytomegalovirus retinitis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. JAMA. 2000;283:653–657
  303. Winward KE, Hamed LM, Glaser JS. The spectrum of optic nerve disease in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;107:373–380
  304. World Health Organization . Provisional clinical care definition of AIDS. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 1986;61:72–73
  305. Xiong X, Smith JL, Chen MS. Effect of incorporation of cidofovir into DNA by human cytomegalovirus DNA polymerase on DNA elongation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997;41:594–599
  306. Yassur Y, Biedner B, Fabrikant M. Branch retinal-artery occlusion in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome prodrome. Ann Ophthalmol. 1988;20:191–192
  307. Yau TH, Rivera-Velazquez PM, Mark AS, et al.  Unilateral optic neuritis caused by Histoplasma capsulatum in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;121:324–326
  308. Zaidman GW. Neurosyphilis and retrobulbar neuritis in a patient with AIDS. Ann Ophthalmol. 1986;18:260–261
  309. Zambarakji HJ, Mitchell SM, Lightman S, Holder GE. Electrophysiological abnormalities following intravitreal vitravene (ISIS 2922) in two patients with CMV retinitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2001;85:1142
  310. Zambarakji HJ, Newson RB, Mitchell SM. CMVR diagnoses and progression of CD4 cell counts and HIV viral load measurements in HIV patients on HAART. Br J Ophthalmol. 2001;85:837–841
  311. Zambrano W, Perez GM, Smith JL. Acute syphilitic blindness in AIDS. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1987;7:1–5
  312. Zegans ME, Walton RC, Holland GN, et al.  Transient vitreous inflammatory reactions associated with combination antiretroviral therapy in patients with AIDS and cytomegalovirus retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:292–300
  313. Zeller V, Caumes E, Bossi P, et al.  [Current clinical aspects of HIV/AIDS]. Presse Med. 2002;31:74–79

 The author reported no proprietary or commercial interest in any product mentioned or concept discussed in this article, and she wishes to thank Gloria Parker, library technician, Wills Eye Hospital, for her assistance.

PII: S0039-6257(03)00182-6

doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2003.12.008

Survey of Ophthalmology
Volume 49, Issue 2 , Pages 131-157 , March 2004