Survey of Ophthalmology
Volume 51, Issue 4 , Pages 364-380 , July 2006

Ocular Oxygenation and the Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy

  • Einar Stefánsson, MD, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationReprint address: Einar Stefánsson, Professor of Ophthalmology, University of Iceland, Department of Ophthalmology, Landspitalinn, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland.

References 

  1. Adamis AP, Miller JW, Bernal MT, et al. Increased vascular endothelial growth factor levels in the vitreous of eyes with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;118:445–450
  2. Aiello LP, Avery RL, Arrigg PG, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor in ocular fluid of patients with diabetic retinopathy and other retinal disorders. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1480–1487
  3. __________ . Photocoagulation treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy: the second report of diabetic retinopathy study findings. Ophthalmology. 1978;85:82–106
  4. __________ . Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (ukpds 33). Uk prospective diabetes study (ukpds) group. [comment][Erratum] Lancet. 1999;352:837–853
  5. Arnarsson A, Stefánsson E. Laser treatment and the mechanism of edema reduction in branch retinal vein occlusion. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:877–879
  6. Arzabe CW, Akiba J, Jalkh AE, et al. Comparative study of vitreoretinal relationships using biomicroscopy and ultrasound. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1991;229:66–68
  7. Augsten R, Königsdörffer E, Schweitzer D, et al. Multisubstance analysis of reflection spectra before and after laser photocoagulation for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Eur J Ophthalmol. 1997;7:317–321
  8. Augustin AJ, Keller A, Koch F, et al. [Effect of retinal coagulation status on oxidative metabolite and VEGF in 208 patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 2001;218:89–94
  9. Bek T. Diabetic maculopathy caused by disturbances in retinal vasomotion. A new hypothesis. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1999;77:376–380
  10. Bek T, Erlandsen M. Visual prognosis after panretinal photocoagulation for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84:16–20
  11. Blair NP. Ocular oxygen consumption during vitreoperfusion in the cat. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2000;98:305–329
  12. Blankenship GW, Machemer R. Pars plana vitrectomy for the management of severe diabetic retinopathy: an analysis of results five years following surgery. Ophthalmology. 1978;85:553–559
  13. Blankenship GW, Machemer R. Long-term diabetic vitrectomy results. Report of 10 year follow-up. Ophthalmology. 1985;92:503–506
  14. Bottaro DP, Rubin JS, Faletto DL, et al. Identification of the hepatocyte growth factor receptor as the c-met proto-oncogene product. Science. 1991;251:802–804
  15. Boulton M, Foreman D, Williams G, et al. VEGF localisation in diabetic retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol. 1998;82:561–568
  16. Burgos R, Simó R, Audí L, et al. Vitreous levels of vascular endothelial growth factor are not influenced by its serum concentrations in diabetic retinopathy. Diabetologia. 1997;40:1107–1109
  17. Burgos R, Mateo C, Cantón A, et al. Vitreous levels of IGF-I, IGF binding protein 1, and IGF binding protein 3 in proliferative diabetic retinopathy: a case-control study. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:80–83
  18. Cai J, Boulton M. The pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy: old concepts and new questions. Eye. 2002;16:242–260
  19. Caro J. Hypoxia regulation of gene transcription. High Alt Med Biol. 2001;2:145–154
  20. Castellon R, Hamdi HK, Sacerio I, et al. Effects of angiogenic growth factor combinations on retinal endothelial cells. Exp Eye Res. 2002;74:523–535
  21. Chen CH, Chen SC. Evidence of the presence of a specific vascular endothelial growth factor in fetal bovine retina. Exp Cell Res. 1987;169:287–295
  22. Chen SC, Chen CH. Vascular endothelial cell effectors in fetal calf retina, vitreous, and serum. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1982;23:340–350
  23. Christoffersen N, Larsen M. Unilateral diabetic macular oedema secondary to central retinal vein congestion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2004;82:591–595
  24. Daniele S, Daniele C. Aggravation of laser-treated diabetic cystoid macular edema after prolonged flight: a case report. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1995;66:440–442
  25. Dawson DW, Volpert OV, Gillis P, et al. Pigment epithelium-derived factor: a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis. Science. 1999;285:245–248
  26. Del Priore LV, Glaser BM, Quigley HA, et al. Response of pig retinal pigment epithelium to laser photocoagulation in organ culture. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107:119–122
  27. Derman MP, Cunha MJ, Barros EJ, et al. HGF-mediated chemotaxis and tubulogenesis require activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. Am J Physiol. 1995;268:F1211–F1217
  28. Diddie KR, Ernest JT. The effect of photocoagulation on the choroidal vasculature and retinal oxygen tension. Am J Ophthalmol. 1977;84:62–66
  29. Dogru M, Inoue M, Nakamura M, et al. Modifying factors related to asymmetric diabetic retinopathy. Eye. 1998;12(Pt 6):929–933
  30. Fankhauser F, Lörtscher H, van der Zypen E. Clinical studies on high and low power laser radiation upon some structures of the anterior and posterior segments of the eye. Experiences in the treatment of some pathological conditions of the anterior and posterior segments of the human eye by means of. Int Ophthalmol. 1982;5:15–32
  31. Feke GT, Green GJ, Goger DG, et al. Laser Doppler measurements of the effect of panretinal photocoagulation on retinal blood flow. Ophthalmology. 1982;89:757–762
  32. Fitch CL, Swedberg SH, Livesey JC. Measurement and manipulation of the partial pressure of oxygen in the rat anterior chamber. Curr Eye Res. 2000;20:121–126
  33. Florence A, Attwood D. Physiochemical principles of pharmacy. London: Pharmaceutical Press; 2006;ed 4
  34. Framme C, Schuele G, Roider J, et al. Threshold determinations for selective retinal pigment epithelium damage with repetitive pulsed microsecond laser systems in rabbits. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 2002;33:400–409
  35. Frank RN. Diabetic retinopathy. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:48–58
  36. Frank RN, Schulz L, Abe K, et al. Temporal variation in diabetic macular edema measured by optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology. 2004;111:211–217
  37. Freyberger H, Bröcker M, Yakut H, et al. Increased levels of platelet-derived growth factor in vitreous fluid of patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2000;108:106–109
  38. Fujio N, Feke GT, Goger DG, McMeel JW. Regional retinal blood flow reduction following half fundus photocoagulation treatment. [comment] BrJ Ophthalmol. 1994;78:335–338
  39. Funatsu H, Wilson CA, Berkowitz BA, et al. A comparative study of the effects of argon and diode laser photocoagulation on retinal oxygenation. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1997;235:168–175
  40. Gibbons WD, Allen RG. Retinal damage from long-term exposure to laser radiation. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1977;16:521–529
  41. Gibbons WD, Schmidt RE, Allen RG. Histopathology of retinal lesions produced by long-term laser exposure. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1977;48:708–711
  42. Gottfredsdóttir MS, Stefánsson E, Jónasson F, et al. Retinal vasoconstriction after laser treatment for diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993;115:64–67
  43. Graziani A, Gramaglia D, Cantley LC, et al. The tyrosine-phosphorylated hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor receptor associates with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. J Biol Chem. 1991;266:22087–22090
  44. Griess GA, Blankenstein MF. Multiple-pulse laser retinal damage thresholds. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1981;42:287–292
  45. Group ETDRSR . The early treatment diabetic retinopathy study report no. 7. Ophthalmology. 1987;98:741–756
  46. Group TDRSR . Preliminary report on effects of photocoagulation therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1976;81:383–396
  47. Group TDRSR . Photocoagulation treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Clinical application of diabetic retinopathy study (DRS) findings, DRS report number 8. Ophthalmology. 1981;88:583–600
  48. Grunwald JE, Riva CE, Brucker AJ, et al. Effect of panretinal photocoagulation on retinal blood flow in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:590–595
  49. Grunwald JE, Brucker AJ, Petrig BL, et al. Retinal blood flow regulation and the clinical response to panretinal photocoagulation in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1989;96:1518–1522
  50. Hackett SF, Ozaki H, Strauss RW, et al. Angiopoietin 2 expression in the retina: upregulation during physiologic and pathologic neovascularization. J Cell Physiol. 2000;184:275–284
  51. Harris A, Arend O, Danis RP, et al. Hyperoxia improves contrast sensitivity in early diabetic retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol. 1996;80:209–213
  52. Hata Y, Nakagawa K, Ishibashi T, et al. Hypoxia-induced expression of vascular endothelial growth factor by retinal glial cells promotes in vitro angiogenesis. Virchows Arch. 1995;426:479–486
  53. Helbig H, Hinz JP, Kellner U, et al. Oxygen in the anterior chamber of the human eye. Ger J Ophthalmol. 1993;2:161–164
  54. Hessemer V, Schmidt KG. Influence of panretinal photocoagulation on the ocular pulse curve. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123:748–752
  55. Hiroshiba N, Ogura Y, Nishiwaki H, et al. Alterations of retinal microcirculation in response to scatter photocoagulation. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998;39:769–776
  56. Hofman P, van Blijswijk BC, Gaillard PJ, et al. Endothelial cell hypertrophy induced by vascular endothelial growth factor in the retina: new insights into the pathogenesis of capillary nonperfusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:861–866
  57. Holekamp NM, Shui YB, Beebe DC. Vitrectomy surgery increases oxygen exposure to the lens: a possible mechanism for nuclear cataract formation. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139:302–310
  58. Hudlicka O. Is physiological angiogenesis in skeletal muscle regulated by changes in microcirculation?. Microcirculation. 1998;5:5–23
  59. Hueber A, Wiedemann P, Esser P, et al. Basic fibroblast growth factor mRNA, bFGF peptide and FGF receptor in epiretinal membranes of intraocular proliferative disorders (PVR and PDR). Int Ophthalmol. 1996;20:345–350
  60. Hyer SL, Sharp PS, Brooks RA, et al. A two-year follow-up study of serum insulinlike growth factor-I in diabetics with retinopathy. Metabolism. 1989;38:586–589
  61. Jampol LM. Oxygen therapy and intraocular oxygenation. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1987;85:407–437
  62. Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for treatment of intraocular oedematous and neovascular diseases. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005;83:645–663
  63. Khaliq A, Foreman D, Ahmed A, et al. Increased expression of placenta growth factor in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Lab Invest. 1998;78:109–116
  64. King GL, Goodman AD, Buzney S, et al. Receptors and growth-promoting effects of insulin and insulinlike growth factors on cells from bovine retinal capillaries and aorta. J Clin Invest. 1985;75:1028–1036
  65. Kourembanas S, Hannan RL, Faller DV. Oxygen tension regulates the expression of the platelet-derived growth factor-B chain gene in human endothelial cells. J Clin Invest. 1990;86:670–674
  66. Kristinsson JK, Gottfredsdóttir MS, Stefánsson E. Retinal vessel dilatation and elongation precedes diabetic macular oedema. Br J Ophthalmol. 1997;81:274–278
  67. Kuwabara K, Ogawa S, Matsumoto M, et al. Hypoxia-mediated induction of acidic/basic fibroblast growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor in mononuclear phagocytes stimulates growth of hypoxic endothelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1995;92:4606–4610
  68. L'Esperance FA. An opthalmic argon laser photocoagulation system: design, construction, and laboratory investigations. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1968;66:827–904
  69. L'Esperance FA. The treatment of ophthalmic vascular disease by argon laser photocoagulation. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1969;73:1077–1096
  70. Laatikainen L, Summanen P. Long-term visual results of vitreous surgery in diabetic eye disease. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1989;67:21–29
  71. Landers MB, Stefansson E, Wolbarsht ML. Panretinal photocoagulation and retinal oxygenation. Retina. 1982;2:167–175
  72. Larsen M, Wang M, Sander B. Overnight thickness variation in diabetic macular edema. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46:2313–2316
  73. Levy AP, Levy NS, Wegner S, et al. Transcriptional regulation of the rat vascular endothelial growth factor gene by hypoxia. J Biol Chem. 1995;270:13333–13340
  74. Lewis H, Abrams GW, Blumenkranz MS, et al. Vitrectomy for diabetic macular traction and edema associated with posterior hyaloidal traction. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:753–759
  75. Li Q, Muragaki Y, Ueno H, et al. Stretch-induced proliferation of cultured vascular smooth muscle cells and a possible involvement of local renin-angiotensin system and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). Hypertens Res. 1997;20:217–223
  76. Linsenmeier RA, Braun RD, McRipley MA, et al. Retinal hypoxia in long-term diabetic cats. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998;39:1647–1657
  77. Lip PL, Belgore F, Blann AD, et al. Plasma VEGF and soluble VEGF receptor FLT-1 in proliferative retinopathy: relationship to endothelial dysfunction and laser treatment. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:2115–2119
  78. Lutty GA, McLeod DS. Retinal vascular development and oxygen-induced retinopathy: a role for adenosine. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2003;22:95–111
  79. Marshall J, Mellerio J. Histology of the formation of retinal laser lesions. Exp Eye Res. 1967;6:4–9
  80. Marshall J, Mellerio J. Pathological development of retinal laser photocoagulations. Exp Eye Res. 1967;6:303–308
  81. Massin P, Duguid G, Erginay A, et al. Optical coherence tomography for evaluating diabetic macular edema before and after vitrectomy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135:169–177
  82. Maxwell PH, Ratcliffe PJ. Oxygen sensors and angiogenesis. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2002;13:29–37
  83. Mayer-Schwickerrath G. Light Coagulation. St Louis: CV Mosby; 1960;
  84. Mazure NM, Chen EY, Laderoute KR, et al. Induction of vascular endothelial growth factor by hypoxia is modulated by a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling pathway in Ha-ras-transformed cells through a hypoxia inducible factor-1 transcriptional element. Blood. 1997;90:3322–3331
  85. McLaren JW, Dinslage S, Dillon JP, et al. Measuring oxygen tension in the anterior chamber of rabbits. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998;39:1899–1909
  86. Mendivil A, Cuartero V. Ocular blood flow velocities in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy after scatter photocoagulation. Two years of follow-up. Retina. 1996;16:222–227
  87. Mendivil A. Ocular blood flow velocities in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy after panretinal photocoagulation. Surv Ophthalmol. 1997;42(Suppl 1):S89–S95
  88. Michaelson IC. The mode of development of the vascular system of the retina with some observations on its significance for certain retinal diseases. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK. 1948;68:137–180
  89. Michaelson IC, Herz N, Lewkowitz E, Kertesz D. Effects of increased oxygen on the development of the retinal vessels: an experimental study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1954;38:57
  90. Miller JW, Adamis AP, Shima DT, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor/vascular permeability factor is temporally and spatially correlated with ocular angiogenesis in a primate model. Am J Pathol. 1994;145:574–584
  91. Minchenko A, Salceda S, Bauer T, et al. Hypoxia regulatory elements of the human vascular endothelial growth factor gene. Cell Mol Biol Res. 1994;40:35–39
  92. Missotten L. Histology of laser coagulations. Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 1981;197:1–8
  93. Molnar I, Poitry S, Tsacopoulos M, et al. Effect of laser photocoagulation on oxygenation of the retina in miniature pigs. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1985;26:1410–1414
  94. Mori K, Duh E, Gehlbach P, et al. Pigment epithelium-derived factor inhibits retinal and choroidal neovascularization. J Cell Physiol. 2001;188:253–263
  95. Moriarty P, Boulton M, Dickson A, et al. Production of IGF-I and IGF binding proteins by retinal cells in vitro. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78:638–642
  96. Morishita R, Nakamura S, Nakamura Y, et al. Potential role of an endothelium-specific growth factor, hepatocyte growth factor, on endothelial damage in diabetes. Diabetes. 1997;46:138–142
  97. Nakao-Hayashi J, Ito H, Kanayasu T, et al. Stimulatory effects of insulin and insulin-like growth factor I on migration and tube formation by vascular endothelial cells. Atherosclerosis. 1992;92:141–149
  98. Nguyen QD, Shah SM, Van Anden E, et al. Supplemental oxygen improves diabetic macular edema: a pilot study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45:617–624
  99. Nicosia RF, Nicosia SV, Smith M. Vascular endothelial growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and insulin-like growth factor-1 promote rat aortic angiogenesis in vitro. Am J Pathol. 1994;145:1023–1029
  100. Novack RL, Stefånsson E, Hatchell DL. The effect of photocoagulation on the oxygenation and ultrastructure of avascular retina. Exp Eye Res. 1990;50:289–296
  101. Oh H, Takagi H, Suzuma K, et al. Hypoxia and vascular endothelial growth factor selectively up-regulate angiopoietin-2 in bovine microvascular endothelial cells. J Biol Chem. 1999;274:15732–15739
  102. Osborne NN, Casson RJ, Wood JP, et al. Retinal ischemia: mechanisms of damage and potential therapeutic strategies. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2004;23:91–147
  103. Ozaki H, Okamoto N, Ortega S, et al. Basic fibroblast growth factor is neither necessary nor sufficient for the development of retinal neovascularization. Am J Pathol. 1998;153:757–765
  104. Ozaki H, Yu AY, Della N, et al. Hypoxia inducible factor-1 alpha is increased in ischemic retina: temporal and spatial correlation with VEGF expression. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40:182–189
  105. Paques M, Massin P, Gaudric A. Growth factors and diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Metab. 1997;23:125–130
  106. Patz A. Studies on retinal neovascularization. Friedenwald Lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1980;19:1133–1138
  107. Pocock G, Richards C. Human Physiology. The Basis. New York: Oxford University Press Inc; 2004;
  108. Pournaras CJ, Ilic J, Gilodi N, et al. Experimental venous thrombosis: preretinal PO2 before and after photocoagulation]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1985;186:500–501
  109. Pournaras CJ, Illic J, Gilodi N. [Retinal vascular occlusion: possibilities of a direct oxygen supply to the hypoxic areas]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1985;186:485–487
  110. Pournaras CJ, Tsacopoulos M, Strommer K, et al. Scatter photocoagulation restores tissue hypoxia in experimental vasoproliferative microangiopathy in miniature pigs. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:1329–1333
  111. Pournaras CJ. Retinal oxygen distribution. Its role in the physiopathology of vasoproliferative microangiopathies. Retina. 1995;15:332–347
  112. Pournaras CJ, Miller JW, Gragoudas ES, et al. Systemic hyperoxia decreases vascular endothelial growth factor gene expression in ischemic primate retina. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:1553–1558
  113. Powell JO, Bresnick GH, Yanoff M, et al. Ocular effects of argon laser radiation. II. Histopathology of chorioretinal lesions. Am J Ophthalmol. 1971;71:1267–1276
  114. Powell JO, Tso MO, Wallow IH, et al. Recovery of the retina from argon laser radiation: clinical and light microscopic evaluation. Ann Ophthalmol. 1974;6:1003–6, 1009–12
  115. Remky A, Arend O, Beausencourt E, et al. Retinal vessels before and after photocoagulation in diabetic retinopathy. Determining the diameter using digitized color fundus slides]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1996;209:79–83
  116. Richard G, Kreissig I. [Effect of laser therapy in diabetic retinopathy on the hemodynamics of retinal vessels]. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1985;186:107–109
  117. Robbins SG, Mixon RN, Wilson DJ, et al. Platelet-derived growth factor ligands and receptors immunolocalized in proliferative retinal diseases. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1994;35:3649–3663
  118. Roider J, Hillenkamp F, Flotte T, et al. Microphotocoagulation: selective effects of repetitive short laser pulses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1993;90:8643–8647
  119. Roider J, Michaud N, Flotte T, et al. [Histology of retinal lesions after continuous irradiation and selective micro-coagulation of the retinal pigment epithelium]. Ophthalmologe. 1993;90:274–278
  120. Sander B, Larsen M, Engler C, et al. Diabetic macular oedema: the effect of photocoagulation on fluorescein transport across the blood-retinal barrier. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86:1139–1142
  121. Sato Y, Lee Z, Shimada H. [Vitrectomy for diabetic cystoid macular edema]. Nippon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 2001;105:251–256
  122. Seghezzi G, Patel S, Ren CJ, et al. Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) induces vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in the endothelial cells of forming capillaries: an autocrine mechanism contributing to angiogenesis. J Cell Biol. 1998;141:1659–1673
  123. Seko Y, Seko Y, Fujikura H, et al. Induction of vascular endothelial growth factor after application of mechanical stress to retinal pigment epithelium of the rat in vitro. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1999;40:3287–3291
  124. Semenza GL. Expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1: mechanisms and consequences. Biochem Pharmacol. 2000;59:47–53
  125. Shima DT, Adamis AP, Ferrara N, et al. Hypoxic induction of endothelial cell growth factors in retinal cells: identification and characterization of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) as the mitogen. Mol Med. 1995;1:182–193
  126. Shiota G, Kawasaki H, Nakamura T, et al. Inhibitory effect of hepatocyte growth factor against FaO hepatocellular carcinoma cells may be associated with changes of intracellular signalling pathways mediated by protein kinase C. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol. 1994;85:271–278
  127. Shweiki D, Itin A, Soffer D, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor induced by hypoxia may mediate hypoxia-initiated angiogenesis. Nature. 1992;359:843–845
  128. Smith G, McLeod D, Foreman D, et al. Immunolocalisation of the VEGF receptors FLT-1, KDR, and FLT-4 in diabetic retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol. 1999;83:486–494
  129. Snyder DA, Miech RP, Tamura H, et al. Effects of laser photocoagulation on adenine nucleotides in rabbit retinas. Arch Ophthalmol. 1976;94:1004–1008
  130. Soman N, Banerjee R. Artificial vitreous replacements. Biomed Mater Eng. 2003;13:59–74
  131. Spirin KS, Saghizadeh M, Lewin SL, et al. Basement membrane and growth factor gene expression in normal and diabetic human retinas. Curr Eye Res. 1999;18:490–499
  132. Spranger J, Osterhoff M, Reimann M, et al. Loss of the antiangiogenic pigment epithelium-derived factor in patients with angiogenic eye disease. Diabetes. 2001;50:2641–2645
  133. Stavri GT, Zachary IC, Baskerville PA, et al. Basic fibroblast growth factor upregulates the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in vascular smooth muscle cells. Synergistic interaction with hypoxia. Circulation. 1995;92:11–14
  134. Stefansson E. Ocular Oxygenation and Neovascularization. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms; 1981;p 248
  135. Stefansson E, Landers MB, Wolbarsht ML. Increased retinal oxygen supply following pan-retinal photocoagulation and vitrectomy and lensectomy. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1981;79:307–334
  136. Stefansson E, Landers MB, Wolbarsht ML. Vitrectomy, lensectomy, and ocular oxygenation. Retina. 1982;2:159–166
  137. Stefansson E, Landers MB, Wolbarsht ML. Oxygenation and vasodilatation in relation to diabetic and other proliferative retinopathies. Ophthalmic Surg. 1983;14:209–226
  138. Stefansson E, Wolbarsht ML, Landers MB. The corneal contact lens and aqueous humor hypoxia in cats. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1983;24:1052–1054
  139. Stefánsson E, Hatchell DL, Fisher BL, et al. Panretinal photocoagulation and retinal oxygenation in normal and diabetic cats. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;101:657–664
  140. Stefansson E, Foulks GN, Hamilton RC. The effect of corneal contact lenses on the oxygen tension in the anterior chamber of the rabbit eye. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1987;28:1716–1719
  141. Stefansson E, Wilson CA, Lightman SL, et al. Quantitative measurements of retinal edema by specific gravity determinations. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1987;28:1281–1289
  142. Stefansson E. Oxygen and diabetic eye disease. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1990;228:120–123
  143. Stefánsson E, Novack RL, Hatchell DL. Vitrectomy prevents retinal hypoxia in branch retinal vein occlusion. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1990;31:284–289
  144. Stefánsson E, Machemer R, de Juan E, et al. Retinal oxygenation and laser treatment in patients with diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;113:36–38
  145. Stellmach V, Crawford SE, Zhou W, et al. Prevention of ischemia-induced retinopathy by the natural ocular antiangiogenic agent pigment epithelium-derived factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98:2593–2597
  146. Suomalainen VP. Comparison of retinal lesions produced by transscleral krypton laser photocoagulation, transpupillar krypton laser photocoagulation and cryocoagulation. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1993;71:224–229
  147. Suzuma I, Hata Y, Clermont A, et al. Cyclic stretch and hypertension induce retinal expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2: potential mechanisms for exacerbation of diabetic retinopathy by hypertension. Diabetes. 2001;50:444–454
  148. Tachi N, Ogino N. Vitrectomy for diffuse macular edema in cases of diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122:258–260
  149. Tazuke SI, Mazure NM, Sugawara J, et al. Hypoxia stimulates insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1 (IGFBP-1) gene expression in HepG2 cells: a possible model for IGFBP-1 expression in fetal hypoxia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1998;95:10188–10193
  150. Terasaki H, Kojima T, Niwa H, et al. Changes in focal macular electroretinograms and foveal thickness after vitrectomy for diabetic macular edema. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44:4465–4472
  151. Thompson CR, Gerstman BS, Jacques SL, et al. Melanin granule model for laser-induced thermal damage in the retina. Bull Math Biol. 1996;58:513–553
  152. Tomic L, Bjärnhall G, Mäepea O, et al. Effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide on human retinal circulation: an investigation using blue field simulation and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005;83:705–710
  153. Tso MO, Wallow IH, Elgin S. Experimental photocoagulation of the human retina. I. Correlation of physical, clinical, and pathologic data. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95:1035–1040
  154. Tucci M, Nygard K, Tanswell BV, et al. Modulation of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and IGF binding protein biosynthesis by hypoxia in cultured vascular endothelial cells. J Endocrinol. 1998;157:13–24
  155. Vincent KA, Feron O, Kelly RA. Harnessing the response to tissue hypoxia: HIF-1 alpha and therapeutic angiogenesis. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2002;12:362–367
  156. Wallow IH, Tso MO, Elgin S. Experimental photocoagulation of the human retina. II. Electron microscopic study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95:1041–1050
  157. Weiter JJ, Zuckerman R. The influence of the photoreceptor-RPE complex on the inner retina. An explanation for the beneficial effects of photocoagulation. Ophthalmology. 1980;87:1133–1139
  158. Wilson CA, Stefánsson E, Klombers L, et al. Optic disk neovascularization and retinal vessel diameter in diabetic retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988;106:131–134
  159. Wilson CA, Benner JD, Berkowitz BA, et al. Transcorneal oxygenation of the preretinal vitreous. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112:839–845
  160. Wise GN. Retinal neovascularization. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1956;54:729–826
  161. Wise GN, Dollery C, Henkind P. The Retinal Circulation. New York: Harper and Row; 1971;
  162. Wolbarsht ML, Landers MB. Lasers in pphthalmology: The past from theory to application. Appl Optics. 1979;18:1518–1526
  163. Wolbarsht ML, Landers MB. The rationale of photocoagulation therapy for proliferative diabetic retinopathy: a review and a model. Ophthalmic Surg. 1980;11:235–245
  164. Wolbarsht ML, Landers MB, Stefansson E. Vasodilation and the etiology of diabetic retinopathy: a new model. Ophthalmic Surg. 1981;12:104–107
  165. Yamaguchi Y, Otani T, Kishi S. Resolution of diabetic cystoid macular edema associated with spontaneous vitreofoveal separation. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135:116–118
  166. Yamamoto T, Akabane N, Takeuchi S. Vitrectomy for diabetic macular edema: the role of posterior vitreous detachment and epimacular membrane. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132:369–377
  167. Yamamoto T, Hitani K, Tsukahara I, et al. Early postoperative retinal thickness changes and complications after vitrectomy for diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135:14–19
  168. Yamashita H, Eguchi S, Watanabe K, et al. Expression of placenta growth factor (PIGF) in ischaemic retinal diseases. Eye. 1999;13(Pt 3a):372–374
  169. Zeidan A, Nordström I, Dreja K, et al. Stretch-dependent modulation of contractility and growth in smooth muscle of rat portal vein. Circ Res. 2000;87:228–234
  170. Zhong H, Hanrahan C, van der Poel H, et al. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha and 1beta proteins share common signaling pathways in human prostate cancer cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2001;284:352–356
  171. Zhu H, Riggs AF. Yeast flavohemoglobin is an ancient protein related to globins and a reductase family. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1992;89:5015–5019
  172. Zhu H, Bunn HF. Oxygen sensing and signaling: impact on the regulation of physiologically important genes. Respir Physiol. 1999;115:239–247

 The author reported no proprietary or commercial interest in any product mentioned or concept discussed in this article.

PII: S0039-6257(06)00078-6

doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2006.04.005

Survey of Ophthalmology
Volume 51, Issue 4 , Pages 364-380 , July 2006